Critical Analysis of Piaget’s Theory and Educational Implications with Special Reference to Language Development

Jean Piaget’s contribution to understanding children’s first thought processes cannot be overstated. His theories on child cognitive development is based on their sensory development, egocentric representation, and language have been the prime focus in the paper. Nevertheless, his perspective and theories have been opposed and questioned by some scholars including Whorf (1956),Vygotsky (1962); Vygotsky (1978); Vygotsky (1987) and Baillargeon, Spelke, and Wasserman (1985). While this paper explores and expands on Piaget’s theories on the cognitive development of children, it also presents the perspectives of his other critics such as Repacholi and Gopnik (1997) and gives a broad overview of the research and theory of the cognitive development. Lastly, this paper offers strategies and suggestions in applying this knowledge in both the classroom and at home.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Early Child Cognitive Development: Initial Findings in a Longitudinal Observational Study of Child Health

Since the first reports of novel coronavirus in the 2020, public health organizations have advocated preventative policies to limit virus, including stay-at-home orders that closed businesses, daycares, schools, playgrounds, and limited child learning and typical activities. Fear of infection and possible employment loss has placed stress on parents; while parents who could work from home faced chal-lenges in both working and providing full-time attentive childcare. For pregnant individuals, fear of at-tending prenatal visits also increased maternal stress, anxiety, and depression. Not surprising, there has been concern over how these factors, as well as missed educational opportunities and reduced interaction, stimulation, and creative play with other children might impact child neurodevelopment. Lev-eraging a large on-going longitudinal study of child neurodevelopment, we examined general childhood cognitive scores in 2020 and 2021 vs. the preceding decade, 2011-2019. We find that children born during the pandemic have significantly reduced verbal, motor, and overall cognitive performance com-pared to children born pre-pandemic. Moreover, we find that males and children in lower socioeconom-ic families have been most affected. Results highlight that even in the absence of direct SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 illness, the environmental changes associated COVID-19 pandemic is signifi-cantly and negatively affecting infant and child development.

Known facts: iron deficiency in Indonesia

More than half cases of anemia are due to iron deficiency. Anemia is a major and global public health problem that affects maternal and child mortality, child cognitive development and eventually productivity. Infancy, adolescence, and pregnancy are particularly at risk. Indonesia is a low middle country with the prevalence of anemia as high as 48.9% in pregnant women and 38.5% in children under 5 years old. It is even higher among adolescents aged 12-18 years, especially in rural areas. Low income and level of education seem to also contribute to iron deficiency. Indonesia government aims to prevent anemia in young and pregnant women by providing iron pills. Still, the etiology of anemia in Indonesia is various and many elements are preventing Indonesia women to consume pills and/or iron-rich foods. We aim to review the prevalence, risk factors associated with iron deficiency especially among women of reproductive age in Indonesia, including the socio-determinant influence on iron deficiency. We will also discuss the management of iron deficiency in Indonesia in comparison with international guideline to identify the potential gaps.

Maternal Depressive Risk in Prenatal versus Postnatal Surgical Closure of Myelomeningocele: Associations with Parenting Stress and Child Outcomes

<b><i>Introduction:</i></b> Depressive risk is higher for mothers of infants with chronic medical conditions. The present study examined maternal depressive risk and associations with parent and child outcomes among mothers of young children who were randomized to either prenatal or postnatal surgical closure for myelomeningocele. <b><i>Methods:</i></b> Using the Management of Myelomeningocele Study database, maternal depressive risk was examined at 3 time points as follows: prior to birth, 12 months, and 30 months post birth. Separate multivariate analyses examined associations among change in depressive risk (between baseline and 30 months), parenting stress, and child outcomes at 30 months. <b><i>Results:</i></b> Mean scores were in the minimal depressive risk range at all the time points. Post birth depressive risk did not differ by prenatal versus postnatal surgery. Mean change scores reflected a decrease in depressive risk during the first 30 months. Only 1.1–4.5% of mothers reported depressive risk in the moderate to severe range across time points. Increased depressive risk during the first 30 months was associated with increased parenting stress scores and slightly lower child cognitive scores at 30 months. <b><i>Conclusion:</i></b> Most mothers reported minimal depressive risk that decreased over time, regardless of whether their infant underwent prenatal or postnatal surgery. Only a small percentage of mothers endorsed moderate to severe depressive risk, but an increase in depressive risk over time was associated with higher parental stress and slightly lower child cognitive development.

Influence of center-based child care on development of two-year-olds in a Brazilian cohort

OBJECTIVE To investigate the association between child care attendance since birth and development in two-years-old Brazilian children. METHODS The study used longitudinal data from the 2015 Pelotas Birth Cohort. The childhood development (cognitive, fine and gross motor skills, and language) at two-years-old children was assessed using INTER-NDA (INTERGROWTH-21st Neurodevelopment Assessment). The child care attendance was measured at ages one and two years and categorized as: a) never attended child care; b) attended some child care (one or two years); and c) always attended child care (one and two years). Demographic, socioeconomic, health, and child stimulation variables were considered as confounders. Crude and adjusted analyses of child care attendance and development were carried out using linear regression. RESULTS Out of the 3,870 infants included in the analyses, around 1/3 attended center-based child care. In crude analyses, attending center-based child care was associated with positive developmental outcomes, except in motor domains. In adjusted analyses, compared to those children that have never attended child care, children who did attend presented higher scores for cognitive development (always in child care: β: 2.44, 95%CI: 0.83–4.05; some child care: β: 1.35, 95%CI: 0.17–2.53). CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that center-based child care may help improve child cognitive development in the Brazilian context. Furthermore, the association was higher for early and continued attendance. Considering the low prevalence of children in external care, it is recommended to improve child care opportunities in early childhood.

Food Should not be Forgotten: Impacts of Combined Cash Transfer Receipt and Food Security on Child Education and Cognition in South Africa and Malawi

Social protection can take many forms. Both cash transfers and food security may have important contributions to child cognitive development. This study examines the potential impact of combinations of cash transfers and food security status on child cognitive development and educational outcomes. Cross-sectional data for 796 HIV-affected children in the Child Community Care study were utilised for this analysis. Children and caregivers completed interview schedules comprised of standardised items on socio-demographics, household data, cash grant receipt and food security status, school achievement, and cognition. A series of logistic and linear regression models and marginal effects analyses were undertaken to explore the impacts of differing levels of social protection (none; either cash grant receipt or food secure status or, both in combination) on child educational and cognitive outcomes. Although all children lived in poverty-stricken households, 20% (157/796) of children did not live in a household in receipt of a cash grant and did not report food security; 32.4% (258/796) reported either component of social protection and, 47.9% (381/796) received both measures of social protection in combination. Compared to no social protection, being in receipt of either component of social protection was found to be significantly associated with being in the correct class for age, higher scores of non-verbal cognition, and higher working memory scores. Receiving both social protection measures in combination was found to be significantly associated with reduced educational risk scores, improved odds of being in the correct class for age, regular school attendance, missing less than a week of school in the previous two weeks, higher scores on measures of nonverbal cognition, higher working memory scores, and learning new things more easily. Educational and cognitive outcomes for children can be bolstered by social protection measures (cash grant receipt or food security). Benefits are enhanced when social protection is received in combination. Such findings support the notion of synergistic social protection responses for children living in environments impacted by high levels of HIV burden and deprivation.

Macronutrient Intake in Pregnancy and Child Cognitive and Behavioural Outcomes

Prenatal nutrient exposures can impact on brain development and disease susceptibility across the lifespan. It is well established that maternal macronutrient intake during pregnancy influences foetal and infant development. Therefore, we hypothesise that macronutrient intakes during pregnancy are correlated with cognitive development during early childhood. The current study aimed to investigate the relationship between maternal macronutrient intake during pregnancy and child cognitive and behavioural outcomes at age 4 years. We analysed prospective data from a cohort of 64 Australian mother–child dyads. Maternal macronutrient intake was assessed using a validated 74-item food frequency questionnaire at 2 timepoints during pregnancy. Child cognition and behaviour were measured at age 4 years using the validated Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 3rd version (WPPSI-III) and the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBC). Linear regression models were used to quantify statistical relationships and were adjusted for maternal age, education, pre-pregnancy BMI, breastfeeding duration and birthweight. Child Performance IQ was inversely associated with maternal starch intake (b = −11.02, p = 0.03). However, no other associations were found. Further research is needed to explore the association between different types of starch consumed during pregnancy and child cognitive development.

Parenting interventions to promote early child development in the first three years of life: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

Background Parents are the primary caregivers of young children. Responsive parent–child relationships and parental support for learning during the earliest years of life are crucial for promoting early child development (ECD). We conducted a global systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of parenting interventions on ECD and parenting outcomes. Methods and findings We searched MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Global Health Library for peer-reviewed, published articles from database inception until November 15, 2020. We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of parenting interventions delivered during the first 3 years of life that evaluated at least 1 ECD outcome. At least 2 reviewers independently screened, extracted data, and assessed study quality from eligible studies. ECD outcomes included cognitive, language, motor, and socioemotional development, behavior problems, and attachment. Parenting outcomes included parenting knowledge, parenting practices, parent–child interactions, and parental depressive symptoms. We calculated intervention effect sizes as the standardized mean difference (SMD) and estimated pooled effect sizes for each outcome separately using robust variance estimation meta-analytic approaches. We used random-effects meta-regression models to assess potential effect modification by country-income level, child age, intervention content, duration, delivery, setting, and study quality. This review was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42018092458 and CRD42018092461). Of the 11,920 articles identified, we included 111 articles representing 102 unique RCTs. Pooled effect sizes indicated positive benefits of parenting interventions on child cognitive development (SMD = 0.32, 95% CI [confidence interval]: 0.23, 0.40, P < 0.001), language development (SMD = 0.28, 95% CI: 0.18 to 0.37, P < 0.001), motor development (SMD = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.15 to 0.32, P < 0.001), socioemotional development (SMD = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.10 to 0.28, P < 0.001), and attachment (SMD = 0.29, 95% CI: 0.18 to 0.40, P < 0.001) and reductions in behavior problems (SMD = −0.13, 95% CI: −0.18 to −0.08, P < 0.001). Positive benefits were also found on parenting knowledge (SMD = 0.56, 95% CI: 0.33 to 0.79, P < 0.001), parenting practices (SMD = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.22 to 0.44, P < 0.001), and parent–child interactions (SMD = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.24 to 0.53, P < 0.001). However, there was no significant reduction in parental depressive symptoms (SMD = −0.07, 95% CI: −0.16 to 0.02, P = 0.08). Subgroup analyses revealed significantly greater effects on child cognitive, language, and motor development, and parenting practices in low- and middle-income countries compared to high-income countries; and significantly greater effects on child cognitive development, parenting knowledge, parenting practices, and parent–child interactions for programs that focused on responsive caregiving compared to those that did not. On the other hand, there was no clear evidence of effect modification by child age, intervention duration, delivery, setting, or study risk of bias. Study limitations include considerable unexplained heterogeneity, inadequate reporting of intervention content and implementation, and varying quality of evidence in terms of the conduct of trials and robustness of outcome measures used across studies. Conclusions Parenting interventions for children during the first 3 years of life are effective for improving ECD outcomes and enhancing parenting outcomes across low-, middle-, and high-income countries. Increasing implementation of effective and high-quality parenting interventions is needed globally and at scale in order to support parents and enable young children to achieve their full developmental potential.