<p>Prediction of rainfall-induced landslides is often entrusted to the definition of empirical thresholds (usually expressed in terms of rainfall intensity and duration), linking the precipitation to the triggering of landslides. However, rainfall intensity-duration thresholds do not exploit the knowledge of the hydrological processes developing in the slope, so they tend to generate false and missed alarms. Rainfall-induced shallow landslides usually occur in initially unsaturated soil covers following an increase of pore water pressure, due to the increase of soil moisture, caused by large and persistent rainfall. Clearly, it should be possible to use soil moisture for landslide prediction. Recently, Bogaard & Greco (2018) proposed the cause-trigger conceptual framework to develop hydro-meteorological thresholds that combine the antecedent causal factors and the actual trigger connected with landslide initiation. In fact, in some regions where rainfall-induced shallow landslides are particularly dangerous and pose a serious risk to people and infrastructures, the antecedent saturation is the predisposing factor, while the actual landslide triggering is associated with the hydrologic response to the recent and incoming precipitation. In fact, numerous studies already tried to introduce, directly or with models, the effects of antecedent soil moisture content in the empirical thresholds for improving landslide forecasting. Soil moisture can be measured locally, by a range of on-site measurement techniques, or remotely, from satellites or airborne. On-site measurements have proved promising in improving the performance of thresholds for landslide early warning. On-site data are accurate but sparse, so there is an increasing interest on the possible use of remotely sensed data. And in fact, recent research has shown that they can provide useful information for landslide prediction at regional scale, despite their coarse resolution and inherent uncertainty.</p><p>However, while remote sensing techniques provide near-surface (5cm depth) soil moisture estimate, the depth involved in shallow landslide is typically 1-2m below the surface. This depth, overlapping with the root penetration zone, is influenced by antecedent precipitation, soil texture, vegetation and, so, it is very difficult to find a clear relationship with near-surface soil moisture. Many studies have been conducted to provide root-zone soil moisture through physically-based approaches and data driven methods, data assimilation schemes, and satellite information.</p><p>In this study, the question if soil moisture information derived from current or future satellite products can improve landslide hazard prediction, and to what extent, is investigated. Hereto, real-world landslide and hydrology information, from two sites of Southern Italy characterized by frequent shallow landslides (Peloritani mountains, in Sicily, and Partenio mountains, in Campania), is analyzed. To get datasets long enough to carry out statistical analyses, synthetic time series of rainfall and soil cover response have been generated, with the application of a stochastic rainfall model and a physically based infiltration model, for both the sites. Near-surface and root-zone soil moisture have been tested, accounting also for effects of uncertainty and of coarse spatial and temporal resolution of measurements. The obtained results show that, in all cases, soil moisture information allows building hydro-meteorological thresholds for landslide prediction, significantly outperforming the currently adopted purely meteorological thresholds.</p><p>&#160;</p><p>&#160;</p>
DREAM: a distributed model for runoff, evapotranspiration, and antecedent soil moisture simulation
