Syntax as a Language Ontology

In our opinion, * `logical basis` and *` syntactic basis` are incorrect from a cognitive point of view. The subjunctive is a syntactic category and the qualification `logical` is an oxymoron, or at least a dissonance. In logic, the category is the subject. And since the subjunctive is the syntactic category, even more disturbing is the tautological * `syntactic subjunctive`. The article substantiates the cognitive reading of the substratum. What is new is the derivation of linguistic ontology as a category of the cognitive method in syntax, of cognitive syntax.

Science vs. Sophistry—A historical debate on bipolar fuzzy sets and equilibrium-based mathematics for AI&QI

The road from bipolar fuzzy sets to equilibrium-based mathematical abstraction is surveyed. A continuing historical debate on bipolarity and isomorphism is outlined. Related literatures are critically reviewed to counter plagiarism, distortion, renaming, and sophistry. Based on the debate, the term “isomorphistry” is coined. It is concluded that if isomorphism is used correctly it can be helpful in mathematics. If abused it may become isomorphistry—a kind of historical, socially constructed, entrenched, and “noble” hypocrisy hindering major scientific advances. It is shown that isomorphistry can be motivated by “denying” the originality of bipolar fuzzy sets and aimed at “justifying” plagiarism and distortion. Thus, isomorphistry is sophistry on isomorphism . Some (-,+)-bipolar isomorphistry behaviors are critiqued. YinYang vs. YangYin are distinguished. The geometrical and logical basis of equilibrium-based AI&QI computing machinery is introduced as a new computing paradigm with logically definable causality for mind-body unity. A philosophical joke on sophistry is appended.

Technique of generalization of results of comparative historical and legal research

This study investigates the technique of organising the information obtained during the comparative historical and legal analysis. The main methods of data systematisation include classification and typologization. Classification is manifested in the division of objects into certain classes and can be based on a variety of criteria. Therewith, each individual classification should be performed based only on one feature. In contrast to the classification, typologization can be performed on a set of essential features and is aimed at understanding the essence of the phenomena under study. Any historical and legal typologization depends on the selected criteria. The result of comparative historical and legal analysis can be the production of entire arrays of information, to organise which it is advisable to use methods of cluster analysis. Cluster analysis constitutes a set of techniques that allow classifying multidimensional observations, and its purpose is to create clusters – groups of similar objects. This study also provides an algorithm for using cluster analysis. All the above methods of information systematisation serve as the basis for further evaluation of the data obtained, the main element of which is an explanation. It is in the process of explanation that the essential aspects and relations of the compared historical and legal objects are covered and the internal causal relationship between the studied state and legal phenomena is established. Evaluation of the results of comparative historical and legal research does not end with a simple explanation, but can also continue in scientific forecasting, the logical basis of which is the method of modelling. The process of modelling at the stage of systematisation and evaluation of the results of comparative historical and legal research takes place in several stages, which are also covered in this study

Intelligence and Grand Strategy

This chapter explores the relationship between intelligence and grand strategy. The first section discusses how intelligence informs grand strategy, and describes several factors that limit its influence. The second section introduces the concept of an intelligence posture, which describes how states build and operate their intelligence services. A state’s intelligence posture reflects its choices about how to collect information, how to prioritize what it collects, and whether to employ covert action abroad. These choices depend on the state’s broader approach to national security. Grand strategy guides key decisions about spying and sabotage, just as it provides the logical basis for the use of force. The chapter illustrates this idea by sketching intelligence postures for three grand strategies: restraint, liberal internationalism, and primacy.

This time without ‘feeling’: Children’s intuitive theories of art as a logical basis for learning progression in visual arts

Learning in Visual Arts has traditionally been framed as an experiential process in which feeling and intuition complement the development of aesthetic knowledge. However, while art can be about feelings and processes that develop students’ expressive capacities, the complexity of art understanding and thinking extends beyond this narrow common-sense assumption. I argue that this assumption, which is represented in the Australian Curriculum: The Arts (ACARA, 2015), and even more firmly resonates in recent proposals for the revision of this curriculum (ACARA, 2021), obfuscates the conceptual and theoretical bases on which students make progress in art understanding. This paper examines the proposition that art understanding emerges progressively and can be described in conceptual terms, the basis of which can be identified in empirical research on the emergence of children’s intuitive theories of art. This paper examines how selected studies articulate the cognitive grounds on which students’ ontologies of art and epistemological beliefs are represented in their reasoning about art over time. It is argued that an empirically supported conception of learning anchored in students’ cognitive development in art that recognises the theoretical commitments underscoring their conceptual and practical reasoning in visual arts practices K–12 provides a logical basis for articulating progression in the subject.

Scientific Representation, Causality and Induction in L. Wittgenstein’s Tractatus

The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how the Wittgenstein Tractatus deals with themes related to the laws of nature, as well as with the metatheoretical principles of science. More specifically, our intention is to expose the notions of scientific representation linked to principles such as those of causality and induction. As a starting point, we propose that the notion of non-precedence of one scientific theory over another is of Hertzian inspiration, which argues that “one image may be more suitable for one purpose, another for another” (HERTZ, 1956, p. 3). As an unfolding of this notion, the systems of geometric representation of Hertz and Boltzmann will serve the Tractatus in order to demonstrate that laws, like the law of causality, as form and not content, only represent the network (any method) that, after all, is optional. On the other hand, metatheoretical principles such as induction have no logical basis and their effect, in the wake of what Hume thought, is only psychological. Like the other themes of the Tractatus, its Philosophy of Science cannot be understood outside a broader context, which is the proper context to the criticism of language. Therefore, what is presented here intends not to be divorced from the relationship between logic, language and science, since, in our view, these are the three pillars of support of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Syntactic Expression of Logical Topos in the Speeches of Russian Lawyers of the Late 19th and Early 20th Century

In the article, we make an attempt to relate logical topoi, rhetorical figures, and syntactic constructions. The research is based on the court speeches of Russian lawyers of late 19th and early 20th century. This period is considered to be the Golden Age of the Russian lawyer eloquence, thus the speeches delivered at that time by famous Russian lawyers in jury trials are of particular interest for the analysis. The speeches were chosen at random as the focus was not on the orators’ individual style but on their general strategies of syntactic expression of topoi. Although topoi have been an indispensable part of rhetorical invention since Antiquity, there still exists a discrepancy in their interpretation. In different time periods, they were regarded as the source of arguments, as clichés and even as themes that can be modified depending on orator’s objectives. In the article, we focus on the approach, which involves trichotomic classification, which includes logical topoi that are connected with logical operations. The most common topoi in lawyers speeches are those of time and place and genus and species . Within the framework of our study, they are analyzed in terms of logical operations and set theory, as well as structural schemes of sentences which were further connected with respective rhetorical figures (their functions being described for each case). The structural schemes’ analysis we used follow the principles described in Russian Grammar (1980). In the final part of the article, the results of the study are summarized. Logical operations typical for the topoi of time and place and genus and species are provided along with the most common syntactic schemes of sentences and rhetorical figures. We believe that this approach to the analysis of topoi can be beneficial both in theoretical and practical perspective and can be common to analyze the logical basis of lawyers’ argumentation, the major component of their eloquence.

LOGIC FOR THE THEORY OF CONCEPTS

In this paper, we follow Gödel’s remarks on an envisioned theory of concepts to determine which properties should a logical basis of such a theory have. The discussion is organized around the question of suitability of the classical predicate calculus for this role. Some reasons to think that classical logic is not an appropriate basis for the theory of concepts, will be presented. We consider, based on these reasons, which alternative logical system could fare better as a logical foundation of, in Gödel’s opinion, the most important theory in logic yet to be developed. This paper should, in particular, motivate the study of partial predicates in a certain system of three-valued logic, as a promising starting point for the foundation of the theory of concepts.

TSINC: A Plagiarism-resistant Online Testing Method

TSINC is a new online testing method. The acronym TSINC represents its five characteristics: Time-pressed, Sequential, Individualized, Not searchable, and Calibration-bound. Its primary feature is that it can be used to organize plagiarism-resistant online testing without human monitoring. In this paper, the logical basis of this method, its implementation details, applicable areas and limitations, test cases, and so on are reported.