Efisiensi Teknis Usahatani Kubis Petani di Kabupaten Karo

<strong>English</strong><br />Karo Regency is the center of cabbage production in North Sumatra Province. The cabbage farming productivity in North Sumatra Province is low compared to other provinces on the island of Sumatra. This study aims to evaluate the cabbage farmings economic feasibility and technical efficiency. Farming feasibility was evaluated financially whereas technical eficiency was measured using the stochastic Cobb-Douglas production function in two categories, marginal and non-marginal farmings. The data was collected through a survey in February-June 2020 with respondents of 58 farmers for each categories. The results showed that the marginal farmings were technically efficient but were not profitable if land rent and labor cost were inputed. In contrary, the non-marginal farmings were technically inefficient but were profitable. This indicates that the poor but efficient hypothesis is true. The significant determinants of of the marginal farmings technical inefficiency were farmer’s age, labor ratio, land ownership, and farmer group membership. The study failed to find any significant determinant of technical inefficiency of the non-marginal farmers. The techical efficiency and profitablity of the cabbage farmings could possibly increased by increasing farmers’ participation in farmers group, building irrigation, developing agricultural institutions and trainings on good seedling practices.<br /><br /><br /><strong>Indonesian</strong><br />Kabupaten Karo adalah sentra utama produksi kubis di Provinsi Sumatera Utara. Tingkat produktivitas usaha tani kubis di Provinsi Sumatera Utara relatif rendah dibandingkan provinsi lainnya di Pulau Sumatera. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi kelayakan ekonomi dan efisiensi teknis usaha tani kubis. Kelayakan usaha dianalisis secara finansial, sedangkan efisiensi teknis diukur dengan fungsi produksi <em>Cobb-Douglas</em> stokastik dalam dua kategori usaha tani, yaitu petani gurem dan bukan gurem. Data dikumpulkan melalui survei pada Februari–Juni 2020 dengan responden 58 petani untuk setiap kategori yang dipilih purposif. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa usaha tani kubis skala gurem efisien secara teknis namun tidak menguntungkan jika biaya tenaga kerja keluarga dan sewa lahan diperhitungkan. Sebaliknya, usaha tani kubis berskala bukan gurem tidak efisien secara teknis namun menguntungkan secara finansial. Artinya, hipotesis ‘<em>poor but efficient’</em> berlaku. Faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap inefisiensi teknis usaha tani gurem hingga tingkat nyata 10% adalah usia petani, rasio tenaga kerja, status lahan, anggota kelompok tani, sedangkan untuk usaha tani bukan gurem tidak ditemukan faktor-faktor sosial ekonomi yang memengaruhi efisiensi teknis hingga tingkat nyata 10%. Efisiensi teknis dan pendapatan usaha tani kubis masih dapat ditingkatkan dengan meningkatkan partisipasi petani dalam kelompok tani, membangun saluran irigasi, memfasilitasi tumbuh kembangnya lembaga pertanian dan memberikan pelatihan menyemai bibit yang baik.

Trade Liberalization, Economic Growth and Environmental Quality Nexus: An Empirical Evidence from Pakistan

The linkage between trade liberalization, environmental quality and economic growth is becoming an increasingly popular issue in environmental economics in recent decades. In view of Pakistan’s position as one of the main contributors to carbon dioxide emissions in Asia, it is vital to identify the main determinants of carbon dioxide emissions. The present study empirically investigates the long run association among trade liberalization, environmental quality and economic growth along with other variables energy use and capital labor ratio in Pakistan for the period 1980-2018. The results also indicate that there is inverted U shape relationship between economic growth and carbon dioxide emissions, hence the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis is valid in Pakistan during 1980-2018. Trade openness has a negative significant impact on carbon dioxide emissions. Capital labor ratio effects and energy use have a direct relationship with carbon dioxide emissions. The results show that environmental quality is first declined by economic growth but with further increase in growth, environmental quality is improved which supports the existence of Environmental Kuznet curve hypothesis in Pakistan during that time span. Furthermore, results also show that trade openness has positive significant impact on environmental quality.

Elasticity of Labor Productivity by Production Factors in the Regions of Russia

On the basis of models of production functions with an explanation level of 80-90%, built using cross-sectional data for the regions of the country, partial values of the coefficients of elasticity of labor productivity by production factors were obtained. Partial (regional) values of the coefficients of elasticity of labor productivity are calculated using the particular regression equations of models of production functions. The factors included the capital-labor ratio, wages, the price index of industrial goods, the coefficient of funds (an indicator of income inequality), the share of exports in the gross regional product. The regions are identified in which these factors have the maximum and minimum impact on labor productivity.

Trade Liberalization, Economic Growth and Environmental Quality Nexus: An Empirical Evidence from Pakistan

The linkage between trade liberalization, environmental quality and economic growth is becoming an increasingly popular issue in environmental economics in recent decades. In view of Pakistan’s position as one of the main contributors to carbon dioxide emissions in Asia, it is vital to identify the main determinants of carbon dioxide emissions. The present study empirically investigates the long run association among trade liberalization, environmental quality and economic growth along with other variables energy use and capital labor ratio in Pakistan for the period 1980-2018. The results also indicate that there is inverted U shape relationship between economic growth and carbon dioxide emissions, hence the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis is valid in Pakistan during 1980-2018. Trade openness has a negative significant impact on carbon dioxide emissions. Capital labor ratio effects and energy use have a direct relationship with carbon dioxide emissions. The results show that environmental quality is first declined by economic growth but with further increase in growth, environmental quality is improved which supports the existence of Environmental Kuznet curve hypothesis in Pakistan during that time span. Furthermore, results also show that trade openness has positive significant impact on environmental quality.

CHANGES IN RESOURCES AND THE STRUCTURE OF PRODUCTION FACTORS AND THEIR PRODUCTIVITY IN HORTICULTURAL HOLDINGS IN THE YEARS 2010-2018

The aim of the research was to assess the changes in relations between factors of production and their effectiveness in horticultural holdings depending on their economic size in Poland in the years 2010-2018. The general characteristics of FADN horticultural holdings in Poland have been presented, followed by a description of the capital-labor ratio and the capital-land ratio and land resources per work unit, that is, the basic correlations between factors of production. Productivity of work, land and capital measured by gross added value was determined. On the basis of research, it was found that the resources of production factors increased along with the economic size of horticultural holdings. In the examined period, land resources decreased (apart from the biggest farms), labor expenditures were reduced, while capital resources increased. Increase in capital value, accompanied by a reduction in land and labor resources, resulted in enhancing the capital-labor ratio and capital-land ratio. In general, as economic size increased, so did the productivity of factors of production. The highest productivity of labor, land and capital was recorded in the biggest holdings. In the examined period, in all classes of economic size, an increase in labor and land productivity was observed (with the exception of the largest holdings), as well as a decrease in capital productivity (in all classes). Deterioration of capital productivity of horticultural holdings was due to a greater increase in capital value in comparison with gross added value. In the examined period, productivity of factors of production decreased in the largest holdings (economic class 5), despite the achievement of the highest productivity of factors of production in comparison with other classes.

Labor Productivity Elasticity by Production Factors in the Central Federal District of Russia

To identify the determinants of labor productivity, correlation between labor productivity and various indicators were evaluated, reflecting the influence of a wide range of socio-economic and innovative factors in the regions of Russia for 2015-2018. It has been established that many indicators characterizing socio-economic and innovative factors do not have a significant relationship with labor productivity and are multicollenarity (they have correlation relationships among themselves). For each year, according to statistics from the regions of the Central Federal District of Russia, econometric models constructed in the form of a well-known standard internal linear function - an analogue of the Cobb-Douglas production function. The obtained models testify to a positive impact on the labor productivity of the capital-labor ratio, the level of export, the level of income distribution inequality, the number of workers engaged in research and development, which indicates the contribution of science to the spread of new technological structures in the economy. A significant positive effect on labor productivity of income inequality testifies to the action in the country of economic mechanisms operating in developed countries.

The Elasticity of Labor Productivity by Factors of Production in Modern Russia

The correlation between labor productivity and indicators reflecting the influence of socio-economic and innovative factors in the regions of Russia for 2015-2018 were evaluated. For each year, according to statistics from 82 regions of Russia, econometric models are constructed that allow obtaining elasticity coefficients of labor productivity by capital-labor ratio, foreign investment, average monthly wage, income inequality, producer price index of industrial goods, export share in gross regional product. The prospects of economic policy aimed at increasing labor productivity were estimated.

Lucas Paradox, Declining Labor Share, Tendency of Rate of Profit to Fall of Karl Marx and Growth Theory of the Firm

Macroeconomic phenomena we observe are supposed to be analogous to conclusions derived from microeconomic models because macroeconomic phenomena are aggregation of data coming from microeconomic events. Since the firm plays the central role to produce output, I use growth theory of the firm to predict macroeconomic phenomena as below. First, the law of diminishing marginal product does not operate although marginal product derived from production function diminishes because the firm increases supply of output by scale growth without change in capital-labor ratio, not by change in capital-labor ratio under fixed scale. Thus, profit rate of rich (capital abundant) country is unnecessarily less than poor (labor abundant) country due to the law of diminishing marginal product so that capital does not outflow from rich country to poor country. Lucas&rsquo; paradox is solved. Second, labor share is equal to capital share in the long run if capital and labor can substitute each other perfectly because the optimal capital-labor ratio of the firm is equal to the ratio of wage rate to return rate on capital, K&frasl;N=w&frasl;&gamma;. That is, labor is relatively more expensive (less productive) than capital if labor share is greater than 50 percent. Since labor share has been higher than 50 percent of GDP (i.e., there is room to substitute capital for labor) for centuries, growth theory of the firm explains the long term trend of declining labor share. Third, labor share is countercyclical and capital share is cyclical in the short run because the amplitude of investment and profit fluctuation is greater than employment and wage. Fourth, the production function that the firm uses to produce is increasing return to scale, which implies not only cyclical co-movement of investment, employment, productivity and factor prices domestically but also unbalanced trade and factor price differentiation internationally. Fifth, diminishing marginal revenue makes wage growth rate less than growth rate of labor productivity and growth rate of return rate on capital less than growth rate of capital productivity. Sixth, growth theory of the firm asserts principle of acceleration in macroeconomics. Seventh, profit rate rises when GDP grows. Thus, tendency of rate of profit to fall predicted by Karl Marx is wrong. In appendix, I propose to statistically approximate the true production function in real world by Taylor series because production functions economists have ever proposed (e.g., Cobb-Douglas) are not proved to be true by economists.