Robert Merton and Ibn Sina: A Roll Call of Moral Imperatives

The paper attempts to expand the authentic understanding of the imperatives of the scientific ethos given by R.K. Merton in 1942. In the original interpretation, Merton’s Code referred only to the European science of the New Age and subsequent centuries. As Merton himself and his followers have seen, the applicability of this code to other societies is not relevant. However, the author of the paper believes that the original four maxims of Merton in one way or another work effectively outside the specified space-time frame and, in particular, work in medieval Arab-Muslim science. The philosophical allegorical parable "The Message of Birds" written by Ibn Sina in the XI century is used as a text in which the imperatives that semantically coincide with Merton's maxims are found. The analysis shows that the text of the medieval scientist is transparently articulated: 1) Mertonian "communism" which assumes the collective ownership of epistemological discourse participants of the products received in its process (new empirical facts, theoretical and methodological innovations); 2) "universalism" that excludes any discrimination of discourse subjects on external, non-scientific criteria; 3) "disinterestedness", according to which the scientist builds his activities as if he had no other interests but to understand the truth; 4) "organized skepticism" according to which there is no presumption of innocence in science, and whoever comes forward with epistemological innovation must calmly and patiently prove his rightness to those who are standing in defence of the existing body of knowledge. Since the author of "The Message of Birds", despite his chosen artistic and mystical form for this work, is one of the largest figures of medieval Arab-Muslim science, his parable should be interpreted, first of all, as a text, which reflects the very process of cognitive search in pre-classical science. A closer familiarity with the nature and content of epistemological discourse in ancient and medieval traditional societies provides a good reason here to see one of the attempts to systematize the ethical rules that have actually been in force among scientists for many centuries.

Questioning Nature in Late Middle Ages. A History of Method, Praxis and Innovation

This essay traces the interconnections between method, praxis and innovation with their epistemological consequences at the end of the Middle Ages. In the wake of scholastic natural philosophy, this vibrant process marks a milestone in the history of science. During the Thirteenth and Fourteenth centuries a profound transformation takes place in the way of observing nature through a meticulous data collection, experiments and subsequent analysis. In this cultural framework, the Franciscans analyze the realities of the world with an extremely original pragmatic dynamism. This approach gives priority to a practical sense of thinking through a transformative action which opens the doors to a pioneering scientific method and contributes to a long series of innovations. A positive result is an advanced didactics—especially developed by Buridan, Oresme and their followers —that will have a great impact on a continental level, changing the common ground of European science.

Luzes e sombras nos Estudos Ibéricos

Em 2011 teve lugar em Lisboa o encontro Looking at Iberia from a Comparative European Perspective, financiado pela European Science Foundation, no qual foi apresentada uma palestra intitulada “Iberian Studies: a state of the art and future perspectives”. Dez anos depois da apresentação original daquele texto, é provavelmente um bom momento para analisar em que sentido e até que ponto os Estudos Ibéricos avançaram nas linhas previstas em 2011. Trata-se, em definitivo, de realizar uma reavaliação crítica da evolução dos Estudos Ibéricos, depois de uma década de trabalho e desenvolvimento, de forma a identificar as suas forças e fragilidades, focar naquelas áreas nas quais existiu, até agora, um claro défice de investigação, e tentar contrariar as rotinas ou inércias estabelecidas ao longo destes dez últimos anos, para evitar que o campo dos Estudos Ibéricos se transforme, paradoxalmente, num novo mecanismo de consolidação dos cânones, narrativas e discursos dominantes.

Comunicación efectiva de la ciencia, diseminación y explotación: actividades multiplicadoras del impacto en el sistema europeo de investigación e innovación

The objective of this study is twofold: on the one hand, to define the concepts related to communication, dissemination and exploitation of results in the context of research and innovation in the European science and innovation system. On the other hand, propose conceptual tools that help research teams to devise, plan, implement and evaluate effective communication plans for science in order to multiply the impact of actions publicly financed, especially those of the European Union. As a methodology, a systematic review has been carried out based on a document bank made up of reports and reference documents on effective communication of science, dissemination and exploitation of results in the European Union Framework Program for research and innovation. Horizon 2020 for the period 2014-2020. This program of programs, the largest in the world that has existed until 2020, has had a budget of almost 80 billion euros during those 7 years to promote European competitiveness through cooperation in the fields of science, technology and innovation in the European Union and beyond. Based on the results of the review work, a conceptual tool is presented for the construction of a dynamic-strategic communication plan or the application of SEO content, to offer researchers the opportunity to know the visibility and engagement of different audiences. This method can also be useful to define measures that enhance the impact of strategic communication plans of projects financed by the European science and innovation system. Resumen El objetivo de este estudio es doble: por un lado, definir los conceptos relacionados con la comunicación, la diseminación y la explotación de resultados en el contexto de la investigación y la innovación en el sistema europeo de ciencia e innovación. Por otro lado, proponer herramientas conceptuales que ayuden a los equipos de investigación a idear, planificar, implementar y evaluar planes de comunicación efectiva de la ciencia en la búsqueda de multiplicar el impacto de las acciones financiadas con fondos públicos, en especial de la Unión Europea. Como metodología, se ha llevado a cabo una revisión sistemática a partir de un banco de documentos formado por los informes y documentos de referencia sobre comunicación efectiva de la ciencia, diseminación y explotación de resultados en el programa marco de la Unión Europea de investigación e innovación Horizonte 2020 para el período 2014-2020. Este programa de programas, el mayor del mundo que haya existido hasta 2020, ha contado con un presupuesto de casi 80 mil millones de euros durante esos 7 años para fomentar la competitividad europea por medio de la cooperación en los ámbitos científico, tecnológico y de la innovación en la Unión Europea y fuera de ella. A partir de los resultados del trabajo de revisión, se presenta una herramienta conceptual para la construcción de un plan de comunicación dinámico-estratégico o la aplicación de contenidos SEO, para ofrecer a los investigadores la oportunidad de conocer la visibilidad y engagement de diferentes públicos. Este método, además, puede ser útil para definir medidas que potencien el impacto de los planes estratégicos de comunicación de los proyectos financiados por el sistema europeo de ciencia e innovación.

Productivity Curve and Social Network Analysis in Science Megaproject Management

Megaprojects aimed at delivering next-generation, multi-billion euro scientific research facilities are complex and high-risk endeavours, requiring expert knowledge spanning a wide spectrum of technical and administrative fields. Such organisations tend to evolve organically, responding to technical and political challenges. They are almost certain to fail to meet expectations on schedule, budget, and deliverables. Whilst there have been illuminating “top-down” phenomenological megaproject studies recently, this article reports a “bottom-up” perspective on the emergence of these issues. Firstly, the staff productivity distribution curves are analysed at a European science megaproject, and a stratified culture is identified with a small, high productivity “clique”, and a vast, low-productivity group of “outsiders” operating at only 50% of their potential. The social network is then analysed, revealing a dense decision-making group that is only tenuously connected to technical expert teams via hierarchy. Staff inefficiency is linked to superfluous roles in middle management, carrying increased bureaucratic burdens and a financial loss ∼10% of the annual salary budget. Corrective suggestions are given, for the current megaproject and future activities to mitigate these causes. This should help to reduce some of the overspend, schedule overrun, and reductions in ambition and scope that have become megaproject norms.

Hubert Simon (Jim) Markl. 17 August 1938—8 January 2015

Hubert (Jim) Markl was a zoologist and animal behavioural physiologist; but, beyond that, he was arguably the most influential figure in European science policy and the key person influencing the relationship between science and society in Germany. He uniquely served as president of both the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Science Foundation) and the Max Planck Gesellschaft. In these roles he was an outstanding and bold advocate for scientific research in Germany and throughout Europe, and his astute judgement, cogency and intellectual rigour commanded the respect of all his peers. His occupancy of the two most senior positions in German science policy followed from his earlier substantial scientific contributions to the emerging discipline of behavioural ecology, as well as his books on science, society and culture. Markl was a leading spokesperson in Germany on contested issues at the interface between science and society; for example, he was an eloquent advocate of stem cell research, speaking out against the political mainstream. He also strove to expose fully, and acknowledge, the Max Planck Society's responsibility for atrocities committed by the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft scientists during the Nazi era; Markl will be remembered as the president who oversaw a historical analysis of the involvement of the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft (the scientific society that legally preceded the Max Planck Gesellschaft), and in 2001 he apologized in the name of the Max Planck Society for the expulsion and deaths of Jewish scientists.

Dungal and Macrobius: On the Perception of Ancient Texts by Medieval Authors

В статье обсуждается проблема рецепции античного (натурфилософского) знания за-падноевропейской наукой раннего Средневековья. Отмечается возможность ее решения посредством текстуальных исследований компаративного характера, цель которых состоит не только в формировании общей «картины» усвоения предшествующего знания средневековой наукой, но и в накоплении сведений о разнообразных способах и методах его трансформации и использования. Автор анализирует текст ответного письма (811 г.) ирландского монаха Дунгала (fl. 811-828) Карлу Великому о природе солнечных затмений, основанного на античных источниках – «Естественной истории» Плиния Старшего (I в.) и «Комментария на ‘Сон Сципиона’» Макробия (V в.). Выявляются цели изложения Дунгала при составлении ответа Карлу; обсуждается порядок планетарных сфер; отмечается знание Дунгалом основ античной натурфилософии; показано, как он (в зависимости от источника – Плиния или Макробия) перестраивает и перерабатывает исходный текст. Сделан вывод о попытке Дунгала ответить на вопрос Карла о солнечных затмениях и полученном результате. The paper discusses the importance of the problem of perception of ancient (natural-philosophical) knowledge by Western European science of the early Middle Ages. The possibility of its solution by means of textual comparative studies is noted. The purpose of such studies is not only the gradual and detailed formation of a general “picture” of the assimilation of previous knowledge by medieval science, but also the accumulation of information about various ways of using it. The text of the reply letter (811) of the Irish monk Dungal (fl. 811–828) to Charlemagne on the nature of solar eclipses, based on ancient sources (“Natural History” by Pliny the Elder [1st c.] and “Commentary on the ‘Dream of Scipio’ ” by Macrobius [V c.]), is under consideration. The explicit and hidden goals of the Dungal’s text are revealed; the order of the planetary spheres is discussed; Dungal's knowledge of the foundations of ancient natural philosophy is noted; it is shown how Dungal (depending on his source — Pliny or Macrobius) rebuilds and processes the original text. The conclusion is made about Dungal’s attempt to answer Charlemagne’s question and the result obtained.

Astronomical Observatories related to the World Heritage List

The article examines the existing relationship between two important concepts, but which are different a priori. First is the heritage of astronomy, generally associated with modern European science and its development through the construction of aseries of famous observatories with large fixedinstruments, all along lgth - 20th centuries. Second is the successful implementation of the World Heritage convention from around 50 years, with its famous List of heritage sites, monuments, ancient cities and landscapes.The article shows the relatively limited number, but already notable, of places nowadays registered on the World Heritage List or even sometime places aiming to be nominated for next years. Additional questions raise, asked by a partnership between Astronomy and World Heritage List; e.g.: the existing astronomical heritage from ancient civilizaions or indigenous societies; astronomy as associated value of broader nominations including classical heritage as palaces, monuments, historical cities and etc. In conclusion, we shortly examine the perspectives of the joint field of Astronomy and World Heritage.