Change or Continuity in Cultures?

This chapter poses the large theoretical question of what generates cultural change or continuity, and provides examples of both patterns in the cases examined in the book. The large-scale program of commemorations of Portugal’s Carnation Revolution is treated in depth, taking it as an example of a mechanism providing for cultural continuity in that post-revolutionary polity. Obviously, revolution itself contributed earlier to cultural change in that case. In the Spanish case efforts to promote cultural change during the Zapatero years, in the 15-M movement, and more recently in contemporary politics are taken up. The analysis searches for mechanisms of cultural change but also offers observations on why it is typically difficult for efforts at cultural change to achieve success as broad as that to be found in revolutionary Portugal. Complex combinations of continuity and change are also taken up. Recent developments in both Spain and Portugal are examined.

Democratic Practice in Action

This chapter provides multiple types of evidence on the large difference between Portugal and Spain in the treatment provided to political “outsiders” and in the degree to which they are included in institutionally important “conversations” about politics and government. Much of the discussion focuses on interactions between protesters and institutional power holders—an arena of conduct in which the two countries are fundamentally different. Various paired comparisons of similar incidents in the two countries are taken up. Evidence from survey research and from the experience of participatory initiatives such as participatory budgeting is also discussed. The chapter also examines evidence from two crucial secondary institutions, the educational system and the mass media. These varied forms of evidence coincide in showing that Portugal’s post-revolutionary democratic practice is inclusionary, emphasizing complementarities between institutional power and the expression of citizen sentiments elsewhere, whereas Spain’s democratic practice is segmented and often exclusionary.

How Democratic Practice Matters

This chapter examines a large range of consequences of what the book conceptualizes as “the Iberian divide in political inclusion,” that is, the major contrast between Portugal and Spain in democratic practice. The analysis shows that Portugal has made more progress than Spain creating employment, limiting poverty, and improving educational outcomes. Contrasts in the evolution of the welfare state are taken up along with explanations for the major difference between the neighboring countries in the magnitude of unemployment. Differences in cultural tastes and in patterns of civic engagement are also examined. The chapter identifies and considers possible lines of criticism of the analysis. Evidence from two important test cases that developed after the book’s theoretical claims had been developed in initial form—namely the exogenous shock of the Great Recession and the conflict over the demand for Catalan independence—are taken up separately in other chapters.

Conclusions

This concluding chapter addresses the overall contribution of the book to our understanding of democracy in the contemporary world. The discussion reviews key arguments in the book and takes up possible objections along with alternative forms of explanation. The chapter also examines how generalizable the argument is, considering how national histories shape conceptions of democracy and forms of political conduct in other cases as well. The Greek case, the experience of Scandinavia, and post-revolutionary cases including the United States are also taken up. The chapter analyzes the contribution to theories of critical junctures and other historically minded approaches to explanation. The discussion also considers the importance of political inclusion and of the Portuguese pattern of “conversation” between protesters and power holders for democracy’s central aspirations, especially in pursuit of political equality. The significance of revolution, of protest movements, and of other mechanisms of social change is also taken up.

Does National Conflict within Spain Undermine or Reinforce the Argument?

This chapter examines conflict over the status of Catalonia in response to the demand for independence. The chapter asks whether the Catalan crisis serves as evidence in favor of, or counter to, the book’s central argument. The discussion includes consideration of antecedents to crisis and the trajectory taken by conflict during 2017 and early 2018. Earlier historical antecedents are also examined. The chapter’s argument focuses on the impact of the predominant Spanish pattern of democratic practice on the magnitude of the crisis. The claim advanced here is that the tendency toward exclusion has been visible in this case in the treatment of cultural “others” with consequences that seriously aggravated the problem. The discussion examines the referendum of October 1, 2017, and many other significant episodes during the crisis. The chapter also provides evidence that democratic practice in Catalonia has been surprisingly similar to that of the rest of Spain.

How the Cultural Frameworks Underpinning Democratic Practice Shaped the Politics of Crisis

This chapter examines major differences between Portugal and Spain in the politics of crisis during and after the Great Recession and argues that the overall pattern of contrast is largely explained by the book’s central theoretical claims. In the economic arena Portugal has managed to diminish inequality during the crisis, whereas in Spain inequality has grown substantially during this period. This pattern of difference is evident under governments of both the Left and the Right. The chapter specifies how the Portuguese tendency to understand democracy in a manner that incorporates protest movements into the essence of the political system encouraged governments to address popular concerns in ways that influenced the distributional impact of crisis. In Spain the pattern was quite different. Consequences for the party systems of the two cases are also discussed. Portugal’s generally inclusive democratic practice tended to protect democratic institutions from decline during the economic crisis.

Messages of Transition

This chapter specifies major differences between the Portuguese and Spanish transitions to democracy in the 1970s and their implications in the cultural sphere. Whereas Portugal experienced a historically unusual social revolutionary transition that began on April 25, 1974, Spain moved from dictatorship to democracy through a reform-oriented process in which the regime itself played a crucial role. The chapter emphasizes differences between the two cases not only in the mechanisms of political change but also in the understandings of democracy that were forged in the process of democratization. The discussion examines major differences between the cases in how political actors defined the relationship between formal political power and expressions of citizen sentiments in the streets and elsewhere. The analysis also introduces a new concept, that of the transitions’ “codas,” that is the readjustment of elements of the initial transition-era arrangements after the rest of transition had been completed.

How Democratic Practice Varies by Country

This chapter introduces the theme of variation among democracies and the book’s new approach to this question. The major outlines of the book’s argument and of its placement in existing literatures are presented. The chapter also provides a working definition of the main concepts—such as democratic practice—that are used in the analysis. The chapter also explains why the empirical work focuses on Spain and Portugal, highlighting the usefulness of this paired comparison as a near natural experiment. Although the neighboring countries have a long history of structural similarity and political parallelism, they moved from dictatorship to democracy through virtually polar opposite pathways of change in the 1970s. The work is placed in the context of studies on democracy, democratization, critical junctures, and culture. The implications of the book for the pursuit of political equality and inclusion are discussed. The content of the book’s eight chapters is outlined.