Wpływ cyrkulacji atmosferycznej na opady w Tatrach oraz Czarnohorze = Influence of atmospheric circulation on precipitation in Tatra and Chornohora Mts.

While significant increases in air temperature are being observed in the context of climate change, precipitation characteristics, indicators and indices seem to be changing in a more regionally-variable manner. High-mountain areas prove particularly subject to fluctuations and changes of climate, given that mountains serve as barriers to masses of air flowing over them, with the result that atmospheric precipitation totals are high in the context of the so-called orographic rainfall. Overall, the Chornohora represents the highest range anywhere in Ukraine’s Carpathian Mts, as there are six peaks over 2000 m a.s.l. capable of serving as a barrier running NW-SE. Nevertheless, the main ridge of the High Tatras (of the Slovakia-Poland borderland) is even higher and runs W-E. Each massif is some 30 km in length, while the two ranges are separated by a distance of almost 350 km. Main drainage divides run along the highest ridges here, with the Tatras separating the drainage basins of the Vistula and Danube, while the Chornohora represent a divide between the Prut and Tysa basins. The aim here has been to present characteristics of atmospheric precipitation in Tatra and Chornohora Mts. as these are seen to relate to atmospheric circulation. To this end, the dependent relationship between intensity of precipitation and atmospheric circulation was examined exhaustively, with changes in the latter considered from the point of view of intensity of precipitation in the massifs under study, and with trends for precipitation over the study period also looked for.The Niedźwiedź (2017) classification of types of atmospheric circulation was applied, with annual values calculated for circulation indicators P (a W-E inflow), S (a S-N inflow) and C (a cyclonic/anticyclonic inflow). Overall, the study drew on 1961‑2015 daily precipitation data from the north-eastern slope of Chornohora Mts. (as represented by Ukraine’s Pozhyzhevska weather station, PO, 1451 m a.s.l.), as well as the north slope of the Tatra Mts. (as represented by Poland’s Hala Gasienicowa weather station, HG, 1520 m a.s.l.).An air inflow from western directions was found to have prevailed over 28% of the days in the average year (Fig. 1). The most frequent types involved here were: Ka (12%), Bc (10%), Wc (10%) and Wa (8%). During the summer months (JJA), it is the Ka and Bc types that are even more frequent (present on approx. 15% of summer days). Types Wc and Wa in turn occur more frequently in winter (DJF) – respectively 13% and 12% of the time. In autumn, these types reach a level of occurrence around 10%.At 1712 mm, the average annual rainfall total for Tatra Mts is higher than that for the Chornohora (on 1446 mm). While the seasonal distribution of rainfall in spring and autumn looks almost the same in the two massifs, winter brings more precipitation in the Chornohora, while summer is a wetter season in the Tatras (Fig. 2). Largest amounts of precipitation nevertheless fall in the warm half-year, in the circumstances of N+NEa advection, cyclonic situations and under arctic, polar-marine or polar-marine transformed air masses (Figs. 3 and 4).The largest changes over time are to be observed for the zonal inflow index (P) and the cyclonic index (C). The P index points to increased numbers of days with a western circulation, while the C index confirms the domination of anticyclonic circulation (Fig. 5). The trend for annual rainfall totals is an upward one overall in both regions, but in neither does this achieve statistical significance (Fig. 6). Equally, there is a downward trend line for numbers of days featuring precipitation (RRdays) in the cases of both the Chornohora and Tatra ranges (equal to -7.3 days/10 years and -7.59 days/10 years respectively) (Fig. 7). On the other hand, the trend for numbers of days with higher rainfall, e.g. with RRdays>10mm is upward for the Chornohora (at +1.23 days/10 years), but downward for the Tatra Mts (at -0.6 days/10 years) (Fig. 8).

Zróżnicowanie przestrzenne wybranych składników biogennych w śródpolnych oczkach w Polsce Północnej = Spatial differentiation characterising selected biogenic components in mid-field kettle ponds of northern Poland

Closed basins are important and fixed elements of a post-glacial landscape, in which they may occupy rather a large percentage of the total area. Sometimes these fill to become bodies of water known as kettle ponds. Each such basin has its own closed catchment at the surface and, owing to the limited circulation of matter in these types of depressions, biogenic components often accumulate to excess. In that context, the work detailed here had as its main objective the identification of sources of biogenic substances like nitrates, ammonium-nitrogen and phosphates, with a view to determining the range of variability characterising their presence in small mid-field ponds present in the catchments of two of northern Poland’s rivers, i.e. the Parsęta and the Borucinka. Most of the kettle ponds under study could not be said to have particularly high contents of nitrate, given an average for the bodies of water studied within the Parsęta basin equal to 2.98 mg·dm-3. There was nevertheless considerable variability in concentrations of the ion – ranging from 0 to as much as 51.30 mg·dm-3. It was the “Sadkowo” pond that might be singled out here for its extremely high concentration (the aforesaid maximum value of 51.30 mg·dm-3; along with a mean value of 13.41 mg·dm-3). In this case a local factor is likely to have been operating – i.e. areal runoff pollution from fields involving nitrogenous compounds. Ponds in the Borucinka catchment had only low concentrations of nitrate, with a mean value for all kettle ponds studied there of just 0.24 mg·dm-3 (with values in the overall range 0 to 2.17 mg·dm-3). Concentrations of the analysed component were thus lower in the Borucinka catchment than in the Parsęta basin, with a key influencing factor likely to have been the sizes of the bodies of water studied. The Parsęta-basin examples were in fact smaller kettle ponds whose catchment features and morphometric parameters are such as to ensure higher concentrations of biogenic (especially nitrogenous) compounds in any standing waters. Mean concentrations of ammonium ions obtained for the Parsęta basin were of 0‑2.41 mg·dm-3, the value averaged for the six ponds being 0.95 mg·dm-3. However, four other Parsęta-basin ponds excluded from the study in fact reported very high values for NH4 + – of up to 25.55 mg·dm-3. The Borucinka catchment again contrasted with the Parsęta basin, with noted concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen both low and of limited variability (in the 0‑1.88 mg·dm-3 range). The average figures for all the depressions studied there was 0.09 mg·dm-3. The situation as regards the two forms of nitrogen was thus similar, with concentrations lower in the catchment of the Borucinka and higher in the basin of the Parsęta. Sizes of bodies of water would seem to be a factor influencing spatial differentiation of NH4 + concentrations. Where phosphate was concerned, kettle ponds within the Parsęta basin had a mean concentration of 0.57 mg·dm-3, with reported values from one pond to another ranging from 0 to 4.46 mg·dm-3. The Borucinka p ds again had lower concentrations of this biogenic substance across a narrower range of values (0 to 3.69 mg·dm-3, mean 0.19 mg·dm-3).

Przemiany międzynarodowej mobilności Polaków = Changes in Poles’ level of international mobility

Until very recently at least, modern society has been characterised by its increased mobility in both the short and long terms. Furthermore, this has been true of both domestic and international trips. The latter kind of mobility is addressed in the present article, which aims to cover relevant changes as they affected Polish people through the 2007‑2017 period. Against that background, particular attention has been paid to modal split in border traffic, with the changes involved presented in relation to supply with infrastructure and transport services. The article uses author’s own data, from research taking in a representative group of 1000 Polish adults (with the sample adjusted appropriately in relation to gender, and membership of the 18‑29, 30‑44, 45‑59 and 60 and over age groups, as well as place of residence: be that village, town of up to 50,000 inhabitants, city of 50‑200,000 inhabitants, city of more than 200,000 inhabitants, and Warsaw). The analysis did not encompass border areas, given the specific nature of the traffic there (and in this way it was possible to eliminate a large part of the daily movement taking place internationally (for the purposes of work, shopping, etc.), but in truth now representing short-term mobility within a region resided in (or else daily mobility using the classification after Kaufmann, 2005). At the same time, by imposing no distance limitations except those relating to border areas, the study retained a capacity to approximate the international part of genuine short-term mobility beyond the region inhabited. Nevertheless, most of the flows under analysis can be regarded as corresponding with the long-distance travel documented in the subject literature. However, the limit value for this kind of journey is set variously, e.g. at 50 miles one-way (Dargay and Clark, 2012), 100 km (Nordenholz et al., 2017), or 100 miles (Mokhtarian et. al., 2001). The configuration of near-border units in Poland is such that the research detailed also takes in slightly shorter transfers, given a limit values of around 30‑50 km in one direction. The aforementioned consideration of changes affecting Poles’ international mobility took in: frequency of travel, target destination (direction), place of crossing of the state border (section of border crossed), modes of transport, motivation, and duration. The work took account of a few basic categories of motivations for travel, i.e. on business (in relation to both hired labour and work on a person’s own account), for the purposes of education, tourism and holiday-related, visits to family and friends (thus treated as a motivation distinct from tourism) and shopping-related (usually in connection with small-scale border trade based around single-day visits). The work was carried out in 2018, but in relation to the years 2007 and 2017. 2007 is a targeted choice, with this being the last year before Poland’s Schengen Zone accession, hence a likely influence on both the dimensions and structure characterising international mobility. Research was done using the CATI method. The subjects of analysis were numbers of instances of international travel engaged in (as opposed to the numbers of people participating in transboundary flows). The work revealed an increase in the foreign mobility of Poles. The main motivator here was tourist travel and visits, as followed by goals associated with professional work and the visiting of family and friends. The modes of transport utilised most frequently were the aeroplane or private car, albeit with the former the subject of a major increase in share, even as the latter declined slightly in proportionate terms. There was a considerable reduction in the amount of travel achieved by coach (bus). At the time of study, Poles’ main destination countries for trips taken (under all motivations combined) were Germany, Czechia and Spain. Travel by Poles to eastern neighbour countries accounts for a very small share of all movement.

Obszary intensywnych powiązań funkcjonalnych miast na prawach powiatu w Polsce – autorska metoda delimitacji = Areas of strong functional linkage of Polish cities granted county status – the authors’ own method of delimitation

Spatial mobility of the population is a key factor allowing for the delimitation of functional areas and the identification of ranges of impact of given spatial units. The work detailed here has built on this idea by seeking to identify areas of strong functional linkage in the cities in Poland that have been granted the status of powiat (i.e. unit at the “county” level of administration). In this context, the paper also offers a critical analysis of other, best-known approaches to the delimitation of towns and cities in Poland. The identification of areas characterised by strong functional linkage is achieved by reference to generally-available data, i.e. statistics relating to commutes to work, as well as internal migration leading to permanent residency status. Overall, areas of srong functional linkage are here delimited by reference to: (1) areas of emigration or immigration relating to thecities granted county status, where these are the source and/or destination when it comes to internal migration leading to permanent residency; (2) areas of departure and arrival where commutes to and from the aforesaid cities granted county status are concerned, with account taken of additional relations relating to volumes of flows in a ‘city–rural area’ configuration. Our analysis was performed at NUTS-5 level, hence the exclusion of cities not enjoying county status. It is against the background of existing literature reports on means of identifying areas of functional linkage for Polish cities that the work detailed here may establish a basis for discussing alternative approaches. Here the authors offer their own method of identifying areas of strong functional linkage, from the point of view of people’s spatial mobility. This approach takes account of specifically Polish aspects of the phenomenon’s development. Indeed, analyses confirm that the approach proposed is very much linked to the functional urban areas of regional centres. However, complete objectivisation (i.e. a lack of subjectivity or even arbitrary decisions) represents a significant attribute of the approach in question, with this being desirable when it comes to research being replicated.

Lasy wybranych dużych obszarów leśnych = The forests in selected examples of Poland’s Large Forest Areas

Key issues for spatial planning and development, nature protection and forestry in Poland relate to the problems encountered in determining the area of forests included within – and the boundaries of – what are known as the Large Forest Areas (LFAs) in Poland. Even as overall forest cover in the country has increased steadily – by about 2.5 million ha overall – since 1945, the data available for the LFAs relate to measurements made as long ago as in the 1960s and 1970s. Even then, it is often unclear whether it is total areas or areas of forest that are being referred to in relation to the LFAs. There is thus an urgent need for meas-urements to be updated, with a view to the present-day boundaries of the Areas being delim-ited. Some 80‑100 LFAs are in fact distinguished in Poland, in line with definitions relating to total area exceeding 10,000 ha (100 km2) and forest cover exceeding 35%. While many of the LFAs received Proper-Noun names at one point or another in their histories, as used locally in a given region, and in guides and publications, there are also less culturall-defined areas that still await naming. Efforts to determine the boundaries of the LFAs at this point allow, not only for renewed or de novo determination of their overall areas and areas of forest, but also for an advancement of our knowledge regarding any items of cultural heritage that may be present within LFAs. Such data will be useful or essential as new physiographic, economic and tourist guide-studies are developed; and they will encourage and facilitate the more-detailed analysis and assess-ment of forest management taking place within the limits of the LFAs. In line with the effort made to achieve the above goals, this article details selected problems encountered with the delimitation of forest boundaries and areas, as these are exemplified by the Polish LFAs of the Białowieża, Bolimów, Borki, Knyszyn, Kampinos, Noteć, Romincka, Tuchola, Łuków and Chojnów Forests. Figures for overall area and area of forest were indeed obtained and are presented here for the selected examples of LFAs, which are also augmented by the so-called Dobrzejewice and Lubniewice Forests not distinguished in this way before now.

Przegląd ekonomiczno-przestrzennych badań rynku samochodów osobowych = A review of economic and spatial research on the market for passenger cars

Rynek samochodów osobowych – ze względu na skalę, dynamikę i konsekwencje jego rozwoju – staje się w coraz większym zakresie przedmiotem badań wielu dyscyplin naukowych, w tym geografii. Przemiany tego rynku są uzależnione w szczególności od dochodów i preferencji mieszkańców, polityki państw i organizacji międzynarodowych oraz poziomu rozwoju gospodarek, w szczególności rozwoju przemysłu motoryzacyjnego. Z drugiej strony, wielkość oraz struktura rynku samochodów osobowych w istotny sposób wpływają na poziom PKB wielu państw rozwiniętych, na eksport samochodów używanych do krajów peryferyjnych oraz na jakość środowiska przyrodniczego. Wpływ ten zaznacza się również na poziomie regionalnym i lokalnym (np. kwestia dostępności przestrzennej dóbr i usług). Dlatego w badania rynku samochodów osobowych włączają się coraz częściej specjaliści zajmujący się geografią ekonomiczną oraz geografią rozwoju regionalnego. Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie wybranych kierunków, a także wyników badań rynku samochodów osobowych, ze szczególnym wyeksponowaniem ich wymiaru geograficznego. Koncentrują się one wokół czterech głównych grup zagadnień: (1) poziomu motoryzacji i modelowania popytu na samochody, (2) relacji między rynkiem aut nowych i używanych w krajach rozwijających się, (3) roli czynników przestrzennych i transportu publicznego w funkcjonowaniu rynku samochodowego oraz (4) skutków środowiskowych upowszechnienia motoryzacji i sposobów ich ograniczania, takich jak elektromobilność oraz ekonomia współdzielenia.

Wykorzystanie zdjęć fitosocjologicznych w najnowszych badaniach środowiska przyrodniczego = The use of phytosociological relevés in recent studies of the natural environment

The aim of this work was to review the latest literature in terms of the use of phytosociological relevés (vegetation plots) in research on the natural environment. The systematic review included 321 articles published in 2010‑2021 in the most renowned journals (indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection with a score ≥100 according to the 2021 list of journals of the Poland’s Ministry of Education and Science). The research questions were: in which fields of science and practice, for what purposes and on what spatial scales the phytosociological relevés are currently used. After initial review, the articles were divided into 10 thematic groups: 1) classification of plant communities, 2) methodological studies, 3) relationship between vegetation and other elements of the environment, 4) occurrence of invasive plant species, 5) indicative role of vegetation, 6) plant communities as habitats for animals, 7) human footprint on vegetation, 8) long-term vegetation changes, 9) combining phytosociological methods with remote sensing methods, 10) social studies. The results showed that phytosociological relevés, as the method to investigate vegetation developed in the first decades of the 20th century, are still widely used in many regions of the world. The most numerous thematic group comprised articles that show how habitat conditions impact the distribution and diversity of plant species and their communities, while the least numerous – studies combining natural and social research. The vast majority of research was dedicated to environmental problems, although social and economic aspects were also present. These were both theoretical and methodological works, as well as detailed studies, which resulted in the formation of recommendations and practical guidelines for nature protection or spatial planning. Recently, relevés have been rarely used solely to distinguish and characterise plant communities, as originally intended by those who invented this method. However, thanks to modern statistical and computer tools, more and more attempts are being made to create automatic classifications with the use of artificial intelligence, e.g. neural networks. The geographic scope was usually restricted to one country (local and regional – 241 articles) or to two or more bordering countries (47). Continental (19) and global (7) studies are less common and studies within Europe prevail. It is because the discussed method was developed and is best known in Europe (Franco-Swiss Phytosociological School), and its dissemination throughout the world is only an evidence of its universality and efficiency. The recent larger-scale studies became possible mainly due to the development of transnational vegetation databases, e.g. the widely utilised European Vegetation Database – EVA.

Roślinność wieloletnich nieużytków miejskich – systematyka zbiorowisk, ich struktura i pełnione usługi ekosystemowe = Vegetation of perennial urban wastelands – syntaxonomy, structure and ecosystem services

There is wide recognition that urban green space provides city residents with considerable benefits, inter alia of an environmental, economic and health-related profile. However, the different types of urban greenery include a rather large proportion taking the form of vegetation on abandoned sites that remain uncultivated, to the extent that a plant cover develops without much active human involvement. Almost by definition, there is only a poor level of recognition of the ecological potential such sites (here referred to as “informal green spaces” – IGS) enjoy, or of their capacity to render a variety of different ecosystem services. Against that background, the work presented here entailed in-depth study of the flora and plant communities present in Warsaw’s informal green spaces, the aim being to better ascertain their role in preserving biodiversity and delivering ecosystem services. Specifically, we identified the plant species composition present at 75 different locations within the urban green space of Poland’s capital city. To qualify for consideration, these sites had to be identified as entirely bereft of vegetation maintenance, or else only minimally subject to it, to the extent that it is largely processes of natural succession that are ongoing. The sites in fact range from wastelands with stabilised vegetation, via urban scrub and forest, through to non-forest habitats, sporadically cultivated and established over 20 years. We determined the density of vegetation present, and examined its structure in relation to various known classes of green space. We further determined the role of various vegetation types in rendering ecosystem services, be that surface cooling, substrate moisture maintenance or a capacity to remove particulate matter from the air. The informal green spaces we investigated are in fact found to comprise mainly-stable forest communities dominated by invasive species of tree (phytosociological Classes Robinietea and Salicetea purpureae), as well as non-forest communities (of Classes Molinio-Arrhenatheretea, Epilobietea and Artemisietea) again largely dominated by invasive plant species. The level of biodiversity here is average, it mostly being common forest and non-forest species that are preserved. However, in exceptional cases, the habitats constituted here do support species rare on a regional scale. It emerges that the forest vegetation is of weakly-diversified structure, as a reflection of the specific strategy invasive species pursue as they form monospecific communities. As noted already, the vegetation of the informal green spaces is seen to be largely dominated by such invasive species. Nevertheless, despite their evidently limited role in preserving biodiversity, these sites represent such a high density and volume of vegetation that their provisioning of ecosystem services is on a high level, especially where forest plant communities are involved. Sites that have come to be dominated by invasive plant species are shown to render ecosystem services comparable with (or sometimes even surpassing) those provided by native species, and this is especially the case when it comes to the removal of particulate matter from air and the exerting of a cooling effect.

Wpływ inwestycji i modernizacji portów morskich w Gdańsku i Gdyni na zmiany struktury przeładunków portowych = The impact of new developments and modernisation at the Polish ports of Gdańsk and Gdynia on changes in port transshipments

Dzisiejsze porty, jako węzły komunikacyjne łączące transport morski z lądowym, muszą skutecznie konkurować na rynku. Porty, szczególnie te ważne dla gospodarek swoich krajów, ewoluują w kierunku organizmów tworzących wartość dodaną, kluczowych węzłów w globalnych łańcuchach dostaw, w których infrastruktura i suprastruktura są elementami jednolitego systemu logistycznego. System ten koncentruje się na zapewnieniu wysokiej efektywności i dostępności dla coraz większych statków oraz minimalizacji ryzyka kongestii. Celem podjętej w pracy analizy jest przedstawienie współczesnych procesów inwestycyjnych i modernizacyjnych w portach morskich w Gdańsku i Gdyni oraz ich możliwego wpływu na zmiany struktury przeładunków w portach w latach 2009‑2019. W opracowaniu wykorzystano dane obrazujące wielkość przeładunków w portach. Analiza zmian wielkości potoków ładunkowych i ich struktury wskazuje na nowe powiązania w strukturze kierunkowej, które mogą wskazywać na nowe regiony (kontynenty lub państwa), do których wysyłane są ładunki z obydwu portów. Przedstawione dane wskazują na relację pomiędzy podjętymi i wykonanymi inwestycjami w infrastrukturze portowej a wielkością przeładunków oraz ich strukturą, prawie w każdej z badanych kategorii ładunków i kontenerów.