Dynamics

Dynamics is concerned with movement as occurs in metals even at very low temperatures. Designs in nature facilitate flow in physical systems such as in the branching of rivers and the circulatory system. The evolution of animals from the sea to the land to the air enhanced movement. Dynamics also applies to the resolution of conflicts in which positive and negative attractors either facilitate or impede progress. The appointment of a devil’s advocate may remove the detrimental effects of group coherence by challenging proposals and closer spatial proximity can create informal interactions to help resolve group differences. A comparison of the dynamical systems and information-processing perspectives is possible by mapping a state space to a problem space, a positive attractor to a productive subgoal, a negative attractor to an impasse, a latent attractor to implicit cognition, and nonincremental change to insight.

Visuospatial Reasoning

Visual thinking has aided many scientific discoveries and is also useful in everyday reasoning. The Animation Tutor provides animation feedback to help students improve their ability to estimate and calculate answers to problems. Examples include calculating the average speed of a round trip and using spatial relationships as a substitute for deriving algebraic solutions. Computer simulations of human thinking have emphasized rule-based reasoning, but these simulations now include a visual buffer to model visuospatial reasoning. It is often difficult to discover new information in visual images such as reinterpreting an ambiguous figure although people are more successful in mentally combining figures to create useful objects. Applications of research on cognitive geography include improving spatial information, geographic education, map design, urban planning, and landscape design.

Action

Actions can be either physical, virtual, or mental and act on either physical, virtual, or mental objects. For instance, Maria Montessori constructed educational materials that enabled students to learn by manipulation. The materials required physical actions on physical objects, such as combining beads to depict operations on numbers. Nintendo’s Wii video game supported physical actions on virtual objects. Gestures are actions that often apply to imaginary objects. Virtual actions involve manipulating computer consoles such as those used in robotic surgery to operate on physical objects. Virtual actions on virtual objects occur in many video games and instructional software. Virtual actions on mental objects occur in computer systems that use audio feedback to help the blind learn to navigate. Mental actions can be captured in brain–computer interfaces to control both physical robots and information on a computer screen. Mental actions on mental objects produce mental simulations. The increasing popularity of augmented reality will require more research on the pairing of physical, virtual, and mental actions and objects.

Comprehension

Comprehension requires selecting, organizing, and integrating knowledge and is measured both by the ability to recall information and to use that information in creative ways. Selection requires identifying which parts of a text are relevant for achieving the reader’s goals. Organization requires combining that information into a coherent body of knowledge. Integration requires connecting the material to knowledge stored in long-term memory. Attempts to explain the ideas (self-explanations) can provide a technique for establishing those connections. The reader must next evaluate the content to decide whether to add it to long-term memory or dismiss it as irrelevant or wrong. Understanding how people make this decision is helpful in designing instructional material to correct misconceptions and gaps in peoples’ theories.

General AI

People use their cognitive skills to solve a wide range of problems whereas computers solve only a limited number of specific problems. A goal of artificial intelligence (AI) is to build on its previous success in specific environments to advance toward the generality of human level intelligence. People are efficient general-purpose learners who can adapt to many situations such as navigating in spatial environments and communicating by using language. To compare human and machine reasoning the AI community has proposed a standard model of the mind. Measuring progress in achieving general AI will require a wide variety of intelligence tests. Grand challenges, such as helping scientists win a Nobel prize, should stimulate development efforts.

Reasoning Strategies

A dichotomy that has influenced much theoretical and applied research on reasoning is the distinction between System I and System II reasoning. System I is intuitive, fast, based on associations, and subject to biases. System II is analytic, slow, based on rules, and more competent. It should be kept in mind, however, that these distinctions do not always apply. A fast, correct response occurs when an expert automatically responds quickly, and a slow, incorrect response occurs when the answer is unknown. One tactic to improve reasoning is the use of nudges to steer people’s choices in a direction to improve their lives. Another tactic is the use of boosts to educate people to make better decisions. Action-based decision-making, such as firefighting and military engagement, requires making a series of decisions as the situation changes. Situation awareness is critical for making good decisions.

Abstraction

The power of abstract thinking is captured by the brilliance of John von Neumann who made many contributions to mathematics, computer science, and game theory. One definition of abstraction is that an instance exists only in the mind (the word truth) rather than in the environment (the word car). An advantage of the latter, concrete examples is they support the formation of visual images to aid recall. A second definition of abstraction is a focus on the most important attributes of an instance. These attributes include those that differentiate one object from another or one category from another. A third definition of abstraction is that an abstract idea applies to many particular instances of a category. Prototypes, rules, and schema are examples.

Categorization

Categories reduce the complexity of the environment, are the means by which objects are identified, reduce the need for constant learning, allow for the selection of an appropriate action, and support the organization of objects and events. The most typical members of categories share attributes with the other members of the category. Prototypes are the central members. Hierarchies are composed of subordinate (desk lamp), basic (lamp), and superordinate (furniture) categories. Social categories such as “ baby boomers” classify people but may be associated with misleading stereotypes. Action categories include event boundaries that mark the transition between actions. They are organized into low-level (elbow angle) and high-level (pouring milk) actions.

Continuing Education

Continuing education is vitally important as indicated by Amazon’s $700 million commitment to retrain a third of its workforce. A poll by Gallup and Northeastern University indicated that the majority of adults were not confident in knowing which skills are required to adapt to artificial intelligence. A trend is developing for creating focus areas for university freshmen who have not yet selected a major. The purpose is to prevent students from wandering when faced with an overwhelming number of choices. Breadth of training occurs when students receive a master’s degree that differs from their other education. Greater breadth of training in doctoral programs should also allow students greater flexibility in their careers. Role models provide inspiration and guidance.

Complex Systems

Dynamical systems are complex systems that fluctuate over time. Sudden transitions occur after reaching a tipping point that can have detrimental consequences, such as the sudden collapse of a coral reef. A slow rate of recovery from smaller challenges can serve as a warning for critical transitions. The increasing importance of complex systems for understanding science requires excellent instruction. NetLogo modules offer one approach for learning about emergent interactions. A review of instruction distinguished between the teaching of complex systems in biology, chemistry, computer science, earth science, ecology, physics, and engineering. Most instruction has focused on the domains of biology and ecology although there is a need to extend coverage to other topics. There is also need for more research on effective teaching because instruction on complex systems is still in its infancy.