Humanizing the Intellectual Capital to Optimize Knowledge Management Systems in Organizations

This chapter identifies the best way to measure, develop, and manage intellectual capital as part of knowledge management. The Ministry of Education is a federal organization whose environment has been studied in all aspects of intellectual capital to identify its model, methods, and tools for measuring, developing, and managing intellectual capital. The qualitative method was used to collect results, encompassing interviews, document reviews, direct observations, and focus groups. It was concluded that there is genuine interest within the ministry to develop its intellectual capital and invest in its different dimensions. The chapter offered several contributions, the most important being the process for measuring, developing, and managing of intellectual capital. It also recommends a sustainable and continuous professional development process for employees. Institutions must also pay attention to the knowledge, skills, and innovations derived from the human mind and harness all the supporting potential, which in turn helps develop institutional administrative work.

Morality and Contemporary Civilization

This chapter investigates if System 2 (analytic system) can revise or suppress the negative outputs of System 1 (intuitive system) by natural experiment in history. Two periods are picked up in this chapter: the 17th century when there was a decline in war, torture, cruel punishment, and religious persecution, and the time after World War II when there has been a decline in war, genocide, and violence with growing awareness of human rights. In short, the outputs associated with strong emotion are less likely to be revised, and an effective way for revision is to use a story to trigger the theory of mind in System 1. This is also discussed in the frame of distinction between deontic moral judgment and utilitarian moral judgment. Finally, it is proposed that a good story should be elaborated by System 2 and be prevailed so that it arises emotions (sympathy) of System 1 and drives people for the better-being future.

What Society Can and Cannot Learn From Coherence

Society is facing uncertainty on a multitude of domains and levels: usually, reasoning and decisions about political, economic, or health issues must be made under uncertainty. Among various approaches to probability, this chapter presents the coherence approach to probability as a method for uncertainty management. The authors explain the role of uncertainty in the context of important societal issues like legal reasoning and vaccination hesitancy. Finally, the chapter presents selected psychological factors which impact probabilistic representation and reasoning and discusses what society can and cannot learn from the coherence approach from theoretical and practical perspectives.

Why Do You Believe in Pseudoscience or Disbelieve in Science?

People sometimes hold irrational beliefs even when empirical evidence obviously debunks claims central to beliefs. This chapter reviews empirical studies exploring underlying psychological processes of holding empirically suspect beliefs with a particular focus on belief in pseudoscience. The author explains empirical findings from a dual process view of thinking. Recent studies show individuals with higher analytic tendency exhibit more ideologically polarized reasoning than those with lower analytical tendency. These results suggest a significance of motivated reasoning in order to fully understand the psychological mechanism of everyday beliefs. Future research suggestions emphasize remaining questions, such as a developmental time course of, a cultural diversity of, and evolutional origins and functions of the belief in pseudoscience.

Cognitive Structure of Moral Reasoning, Development, and Evolution With Age and Pathology

This chapter presents research on moral judgment from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day. First, the authors will present the contribution of Piaget and Kohlberg's work on moral development from childhood to adulthood as well as the work of Gilligan on moral orientation and the difference observed between men and women. Then, the authors will analyze underlying structures of moral judgment in the light of the Dual Process Theory with two systems: system 1: quick, deontological, emotional, intuitive, automatic, and system 2: slow, utilitarian, rational, controlled, involved in human reasoning. Finally, the model of Dual Process Theory will be confronted with data from moral judgment experiments, run on elderly adults with Alzheimer's disease, teenagers with Autism Spectrum Disorder, and children and teenagers with intellectual disability in order to understand how cognitive impairment affects the structures and components of moral judgment.

Lexical Basis of Causal Attribution and Explanation

This chapter explains how laypeople generate and evaluate explanations. Traditionally, deliberate processing is assumed to be involved in generating and evaluating explanations. However, the author proposes two stages account for causal attribution and explanation to explain how laypeople generate and evaluate explanations quickly: a semi-autonomous processing stage which is primarily dependent on the lexical information of the verb, and a deliberate processing stage that takes many factors into account. The author proposes that verb types play an important role in determining the type of explanation and calls it verb cue hypothesis. In addition, the author proposes that verb cue hypothesis works as a cognitive shortcut that comprises the first stage of the two-stages account. Empirical evidence for the verb cue hypothesis was found in studies on causal attribution and explanation type preference.

Dual Models Argumentative Theory and Moral Reasoning

The idea of the existence of duality in the functioning of the human mind is very old: for some psychologists, this is due to the existence of two types of cognitive process, heuristic and analytic. The former is influenced by the individual's beliefs, and the latter analyzes the validity of arguments and justifications. This chapter examines this duality from a critical perspective by exploring its ecological validity. Thus, the duality will be examined in relation to the principles of the Darwinian theory of evolution and presented the advantages of the alternative model of argumentative theory. Authors present in more detail recent models of moral reasoning to illustrate what they believe are the limitations of the dual-process models of cognition.

Why We Need a Construction Approach to Logic Education

This chapter introduces a construction approach to logic education by explaining why such an approach is needed and how it should be implemented. The chapter is divided into two parts. The first part argues that conventional logic education cannot teach people how to make a practical use of logic because what people commonly learn from conventional textbooks of logic can hardly correspond to the ordinary way of reasoning. The second part highlights how the construction approach can be integrated into people's ordinary way of reasoning by being practical and constructive in helping people use logic in what they do, such as writing an academic paper. It presents a general framework about how a logical relation can be constructed from scratch, and the three major steps of the construction.

From Analogical to Analytical Thinking and Back

This chapter shows the importance for teachers to enter into a truly reflexive activity and to make it the main aspect of their professional activity. The author describes ways teachers can regain control over the activity of thinking and adapt their modes of reasoning to educational situations by developing control over the transition from system 1 to system 2. The aim is to consider the conditions for developing decision-making procedures, both reflexive and collective, when faced with complex situations (particularly crises), based on a deliberation rooted in a logic of inquiry.

Laugh and Laughter as Adaptation in Human Being

In the process of human evolution, the biggest adaptive problems have been how to maintain a group and how to rise in rank in a group hierarchy. If an adaptive problem is solved, the probability the solver will survive and success in reproduction rises. Laugh and laughter is discussed in the frame that it has been used to solve the adaptive problem in this chapter. The trigger of laughter is the cognition of a discrepancy. The discrepancy is the difference between what is expected and the actual state. A discrepancy cannot be serious to cause laugh and laughter. If it is implicitly expected to be resolved, then it is likely to arise a laughter with positive feeling. When laughter is shared by some people, it functions to link them with friendly relationship. On the other hand, the laughter becomes derisive (ridicule) when the discrepancy is between a social norm and an actual behavior. The ridicule functions to one's supremacy over the target individual. This function has been adaptive in the society of dominance hierarchy.