Francisco Suarez on God’s Knowledge of Future Contingent Events

The problems of contingency, free will, omniscience and omnipotence of God, possible worlds, posed by the famous representative of the second scholasticism, the Spanish philosopher Francisco Suarez (1548–1617) in his work “On God’s knowledge of future contingent events” are discussed in the historical, philosophical and theological context. Suarez (unlike, for example, Spinoza) recognizes the existence of contingent events in the world, shows that the existence of contingent events does not diminish the omnipotence of God. Suarez, following Thomas Aquinas, shows how it is possible to reconcile the existence of free will, the main source of contingency, with the omniscience of God. As Luis Molina, Suarez recognizes God’s knowledge not only of real, but also of possible future. The originality of Suarez manifests itself in solving the question of how God knows possible future events and, accordingly, possible worlds. Attention is paid to the influence of Suarez’s philosophy on the philosophy of modern times, including Descartes and Leibniz. The reader is also offered a translation of the first chapter of the second part of the essay of the Spanish philosopher and theologian Francisco Suarez “On God’s knowledge of future contingent events”, in which Suarez on the basis of the hermeneutics of the Biblical texts proves the thesis about God’s knowledge of future contingent events, which could have happened, but in reality had not happened and will not happen in the future, disproving the arguments of Catholic theologians Ambrogio Catarino Politi (1484–1553) and Jansenius of Ghent (1510–1576), who questioned the assertion that God possesses such knowledge. The translation is provided with comments, an introductory article and a list of references.

Encounter as a Category of the Religious Hermeneutics

The reader is offered a Russian translation of the German article (its final part) of the modern philosopher and indologist Gerhard Oberhammer (b. 1929) “Encounter as a Category of Religious Hermeneutics”. In addition to the fact that this article reflects the professional interests of Oberhammer as an indologist, who here carries out a philosophical reflection of his many years of experience in studying the religious and philosophical systems of India, it is also interesting for its pronounced and definitely author’s philosophical position, which is akin in content to the ideas of E. Levinas, and in expression – to the language of M. Heidegger. The complexity of Oberhammer’s language can become an obstacle to the reception of his philosophical works, which we observe as a typical reaction among the Indologists.

Why is the Dialogue between Analytic Philosophy and “Postmetaphysicians” so Difficult? (remark)

It is an appearance of reviews on the newest books of two very notorious representatives of analytic and “postmetaphysical” theology in this journal, while the second review refers to polemics between these two trends, that incites an attempt at making clear wherein their incompatibility consists anew. The author sees it in two peculiarities of postmetaphysical philosophizing, i.e. a diffusive texture of this type of discourse and its political bias conjoined with a pastime with concepts and words. The first peculiarity makes one detect its genetic code from somewhat another angle as usually takes place, not so much in Nitzschean and Heideggerean philosophy as in a type of generating texts in the Jena school of Romanticism. Herewith also differences are emphasized, in the first place much more creativity of Jena thinkers and their attempts at rather producing new religions than destruction of those existing.

Ethics and Ontology in the Theravāda Buddhism: Talks on ethically good and bad deeds in “Kathāvatthu” I.1.200–I.1.216

This article focuses on the development of ethical issues in early Buddhism. The author focuses on the concepts “good deed” (kālyana-kamma) and “bad deed” (pāpa-kamma). These concepts are discussed in the text “The Section on Ethical Goodness” from “The Points of Discpute” (Kathāvaththu). The article begins with a brief description of “Points of Discpute”. The author then analyzes the semantics of the concepts of good and evil in early Buddhism. Beside therms kālyana – pāpa, a pair of concepts kusala – akusala is used in early Buddhist philosophy. The author concludes that the concepts kusala – akusala are used in later Buddhist texts and their use is more regular. The main part of the article is an analysis of the “The Section on Ethical Goodness”. Using specific examples, the discussion techniques characteristic of the Kathāvattu are revealed: interrogation, repetition and reduction to absurdity. It is demonstrated that scrutinizing of ethical topics in the Buddhist text cannot be separated from solving of metaphysical issues, that of the existence of the substantial doer besides deeds being most important one. Just this issue proved fundamental in discordance in opinions between the orthodox Buddhism of the therāvada school and heterodox lines of the puggalavāda. Attached is the first Russian translation from Pali of sections I.1.200, I.1.201, I.1.212 from Kathāvaththu text of the Abhidhamma-piţaka.

Maimonides’ Metaphysics and Cosmology in “The Guide for Perplexed” and in “The Epistle to the Sages of Marseille”

Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (Maimonides) in the Second part of his main philosophical treatise The Guide for Perplexed analyzes geocentric cosmology which was for his epoch as paradigm. Also there he considers peripatetic ideas on Pre-eternity of the Universe and concept of multitude of worlds. He challenges and queries Post-Ptolemaic concept of epicycles what is so indistinctive for 12th century. Also two Medieval Jewish mysterious doctrines named Ma’ase Bereshit (Action of Creation) and Ma’ase Merqava (Action of Charriot) are analyzed by him in light of popular for Jewish High Middle Age interpretation as Physics and Metaphysics respectively. Mystical Talmudic teaching on Kise ha-Kavod (the Throne of [Divine] Glory) is interpreted as Peripatetic view on superlunary world. In The Epistle to the Sages of Marseille Maimonides sets some criteria up for rational faith and regards fundamental arguments against astrology by dividing pre-scientific cosmology and superstitions. He considers concept of rea’ya brura (pure viewing or clear proof) in epistemological and ontological sense. To rabbi Moshe logic of mathematical proof (and Pre-Scientific Knowledge at all) and sensual perception have got more weight than Biblical prophets literary words.

“Are We Souls or Bodies?” R. Swinburne’s Substantial Dualism

This article is a review of R. Swinburne’s book, “Are we bodies or souls?”. Swinburne seeks to prove that the existence of our bodies is not necessary for the existence of us, although he certainly does not deny their value. The mental substance, which he calls the soul, is both necessary and sufficient for the existence and individuation of persons. In this article the author analyzes two central arguments in defense of this view. The first argument is a solution to the problem of personal identity. Swinburne argues for what the modern literature calls “soul-theory”, according to which we are a substance with a unique principle of individuation – thisness. The second argument is a modification of Descartes’ argument, relying on the possibility of the sudden destruction of the body with the preservation of what Swinburne calls «I». The last part of the paper examines Swinburne’s response to the central problem of this argument, namely, the problem of reference to «I». The author concludes that, although Swinburne’s argument is not sufficient for those who already has physicalistic beliefs about the nature of persons, he nevertheless makes a good case that Descartes’ modified argument is successful.

Cross and Glory in Post-Metaphysical Perspective

The paper is devoted to the recent book of John D. Caputo “Cross and the Cosmos: A Theology of Difficult Glory”. Caputo’s project is examined as one of the most representative explications of postmetaphysical discourse in contemporary theology. We consider the key concepts of Caputo’s theological hermeneutics – the impossible, the event, and the kingdom of God as a context for a radical theology of the cross. The paper emphases on the coming nature of the event that signals its openness to surprising possibilities that constitute even the possibility of the impossible. The author highlights the main features of the theology of the cross in Caputo’s early works, where the cross is conceptualized as a paradigmatic expression of the event of the kingdom. The analysis of the work “Cross and the Cosmos” outlines the ways of radicalization of theology of the cross and the strategy of reinterpretation of the concept of divine glory. The article highlights the problem of Caputo’s theopoetic method and considers its critique in analytical theology. We argue that a radical theology of the cross is hermeneutics of open-ended transformations in this world, a theology of the divine call embedded in temporality and mortality.

Paul Deussen as a Philosopher

Paul Deussen (1845–1919) as a philosopher followed Arthur Schopenhauer and in his main philosophical work “The Elements of Metaphysics” developed the teaching of the universal Will that reveals itself in living beings as organs of the body and instincts and in human being – as personal will. Intellect is the highest form of the Will but it can free itself – temporarily in esthetic contemplation and totally in overcoming the Will by the Will itself. Deussen’s interest to the philosophy of Schopenhauer influenced his interests in Oriental studies. He analyzed Indian philosophy in comparison with the European one. He discovered nonrandom similarities between philosophical teachings formed in these cultures that, in his opinion, testified to the principal unity of laws of philosophical thought that do not depend on the cultural affiliation of a thinker. Basing on this, he put the problem of possibility and ways of comparative study of philosophy. In his interpretation of Indian philosophy he reproduced and developed the ideas of German Romanticists who searched new ways of cultural development beyond the sphere of Western civilization. Deussen’s interests in Indian philosophy were in fact the continuation of his general philosophical interests. But they are demanded also today inasmuch as philosophical comparative studies offer the challenge for that intercultural philosophy having as it is also religious dimension which was worked on by Paul Deussen as one among the earliest scholars.

Metaphysical Principles at the Basis of Analogical Predication of God and Creatures

The aim of the paper is to reconstruct the key metaphysical presuppositions on which Thomas Aquinas grounds his analogical predication of God and creatures. By doing so one can get a better grip on what analogical predication means in Aquinas and how a term predicated of God differs in meaning from that ascribed to creatures, e.g. the term “wise”. First, there are two kinds of predication of a property based on the mode of ontological realization of the property in God and creatures (essential predication and predication based on participation). These differences in modes of realization translate into the semantics of predication (the meaning of the copula and the subject and predicate terms). The properties in God and in creatures respectively are related by the relationship of exemplar causation. The property in God is not directly apprehended by the intellect but is partially understood based on the property in creatures. The latter, being apprehended by a human mind, must be qualified by negation and making eminent.

Metaphysical Foundations of Spatiality in the Teachings of the Classical Mutakallims (VIII-XIII centuries)

The article reviews Muslim mutakallimūn’s doctrines of VIII–XIII centuries about metaphysic basis of spatiality. Using a huge amount of Mutazili’, Ashari’ and Zaydi’ treatises, the author analyzes three the most significant conceptual blocks of physical theories of Muslim theologists – cosmologic, macro- and microspatial. The study shows, that pre-islamic time’s mythologems, which partially consist in a Muslim mythological corpus texti, specify basic theoretical coordinates of kalām cosmology. The latter, in its turn, bases on general Semitic intuition of hierarchy layout of metaverse. As for indigenous speculation of Mutakalimūn’s about tridimentional microspace, it has found its expression in elaborating the categories of makān and djiha – to denote virtual or real whereabouts of the entity and the void. In the end, Middle-East philosophers-atomists interpreted microspace – hayyiz predicatively connected with the sense of tiny matter particles, as geometrical unexpanse, which serves as ontology base both for one- or two-dimensionality and for three-dimensional complex entities. Separately the article offers original Mutakallimūn’s theories, which refer to the problems of reciprocity between spiritual entities and physical space.