<p>Mugil cephalus is a cosmopolitan fish species found in most coastal waters from tropical to temperate zones. It is a species common in the near-shore marine environment, and known to reside in estuarine and freshwater systems. Adult M. cephalus move out to sea to spawn in aggregations. Their larvae can drift on surface ocean currents for over a month before recruitment to nursery grounds. Mugil cephalus is a species that is closely associated with the coastal environment, but it is capable of interoceanic migrations. Population genetic studies have reported high levels of genetic differentiation among populations in the Mediterranean, Atlantic and western Pacific. However, there is no evidence to suggest reproductive incompatibility has arisen among populations. In New Zealand M. cephalus supports important recreational, commercial and customary fisheries, but very little is known about the distribution and connectivity among populations. The aim of this study was to use nuclear microsatellite DNA (msatDNA) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers to describe the population genetic structure, connectivity patterns and to determine the phylogeographic history of New Zealand M. cephalus populations. Total of 850 samples were collected (576 adults and 274 juveniles) during the summers of 2010 and 2014-2015 from 15 locations around coastal and inland waters of the North Island, and one location in Marlborough Sounds. In addition, 245 mtDNA sequences were added from previously published studies and used to outgroup the New Zealand population and place it into the context of the other Pacific populations. Seven msatDNA loci were isolated and used to determine the population genetic structure and connectivity patterns of M. cephalus in New Zealand. Admixture of four genetically distinct groups or populations was identified and a chaotic spatial distribution of allele frequencies. Within each population there was significant gene flow among locations, no pattern of genetic isolation-by-distance was identified and there was a high proportion of non-migrant individuals. There was evidence of bottlenecks and seasonal reproductive variation of adults, which could explain the significant shifts in the effective population size among locations. To test whether the pattern of genetic variation in M. cephalus populations was the result of seasonal variability in the reproductive success of adults, DNA from adult and juvenile samples were used to test for differences in the levels of genetic variation between generations (cohorts). Juveniles were grouped by age classes and compared to the adults. The levels of genetic diversity within the groups of juveniles were compared to the adult population and significant genetic bottlenecks between juveniles and adults were detected. This pattern was consistent with the Sweepstake-Reproductive-Success hypothesis. Two spawning groups in the adults were identified, an early spawning group and a late spawning group. The analysis of DNA sequence data from the mtDNA Cytochrome Oxidase subunit 1 (COX1) gene and D-loop region showed two sympatric haplogroups of M. cephalus. New Zealand was most likely colonised by M. cephalus migrants from different population sources from the Pacific first ~50,000 and a second wave of migrants from Australia between ~20, 000 and ~16,000 years ago. High levels of gene flow were detected, but there has not been enough time for genetic drift to completely sort the lineages. The findings of this thesis research will help with the understanding of aspects of M. cephalus dispersal and the genetic structure of populations. The patterns of connectivity can be used to better align the natural boundaries of wild populations to the fishery management stock structure. Understanding the reproductive units, levels of genetic diversity and the patterns of reproduction of M. cephalus will assist management efforts to focus on the key habitats threats, risks and the long-term sustainability of the species.</p>
Absence of Population Genetic Structure Among Breeding Colonies of the Waved Albatross
