Supplemental Material for Assessing Planning Ability With the Tower of London Task: Psychometric Properties of a Structurally Balanced Problem Set

AbstractPrevious studies show that MS patients take longer than healthy controls to plan their solutions to Tower of London (TOL) problems but yield conflicting results regarding the quality of their solutions. The present study evaluated performance under untimed or timed conditions to assess the possibility that differences in planning ability only occur when restrictions in solution times are imposed. MS patients (n = 39) and healthy controls (n = 43) completed a computerized version of the TOL under one of two conditions. In the untimed condition, participants were allowed as much time as needed on each problem. In the timed condition, limits were imposed on solution times and time remaining was displayed with each problem. Patients exhibited longer planning times than controls, and the disparity between groups increased with problem difficulty. Planning performance depended upon condition. In the untimed condition, patients and controls performed equally well. When solution times were restricted, however, patients solved fewer problems than controls. MS patients’ planning ability is intact when permitted sufficient time to formulate the required plan. Deficiencies in planning are only evident when time is restricted, and, therefore, are more accurately considered a relative consequence of disease-related problems in information processing speed. (JINS, 2013, 19, 1–8)

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Planning ability impairments in probable Alzheimer's disease patients: Evidence from the Tower of London test

Dementia & Neuropsychologia ◽

10.1590/1980-57642016dn11-020006 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 11 (2) ◽

pp. 137-144 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Corina Satler ◽

Luiza Guimarães ◽

Carlos Tomaz

Keyword(s):

Alzheimer’S Disease ◽

Alzheimer's Disease ◽

Cognitive Abilities ◽

Poor Performance ◽

Test Results ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Inappropriate Behaviors ◽

Inhibitory Deficits ◽

Planning Ability ◽

Wide Range

ABSTRACT Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with progressive impairment of higher-level cognitive abilities. Previous research suggests that early impairment of executive functions occurs during the course of the disease, but few studies have specifically investigated planning ability in an AD population. Objective: The purpose of the current study was to examine whether AD patients retain the ability to plan ahead, by analyzing specificities of their behavior in successfully achieving a pre-established goal. Methods: Twenty-one AD patients and thirty-three elderly controls underwent a problem-solving assessment using the Tower of London (TOL) test. Results: AD patients were less accurate and less efficient than controls. AD patients also committed more mistakes. This indicates a decline in working memory and inhibitory deficits, resulting in impulsive and inappropriate behaviors. Conclusion: These results are in agreement with previous studies, showing executive function problems in patients with AD. Specifically, this study demonstrates the presence of planning ability deficits in AD, considering both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The wide range of analysis presented in this study can aid clinicians in identifying the nature of the poor performance of AD patients during a planning task.

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The Effects of Adult Ageing and Culture on the Tower of London Task

Frontiers in Psychology ◽

10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631458 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Louise H. Phillips ◽

Louisa Lawrie ◽

Alexandre Schaefer ◽

Cher Yi Tan ◽

Min Hooi Yong

Keyword(s):

Cultural Differences ◽

Everyday Functioning ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Two Cultures ◽

Age Related ◽

Planning Ability ◽

Medium Education ◽

Education Levels ◽

The Two Cultures ◽

Potential Interactions

Planning ability is important in everyday functioning, and a key measure to assess the preparation and execution of plans is the Tower of London (ToL) task. Previous studies indicate that older adults are often less accurate than the young on the ToL and that there may be cultural differences in performance on the task. However, potential interactions between age and culture have not previously been explored. In the current study we examined the effects of age on ToL performance in an Asian culture (Malaysia) and a Western culture (British) (n = 191). We also explored whether working memory, age, education, and socioeconomic status explained variance in ToL performance across these two cultures. Results indicated that age effects on ToL performance were greater in the Malaysian sample. Subsequent moderated mediation analysis revealed differences between the two cultures (British vs Malaysians), in that the age-related variance in ToL accuracy was accounted for by WM capacity at low and medium education levels only in the Malaysian sample. Demographic variables could not explain additional variance in ToL speed or accuracy. These results may reflect cultural differences in the familiarity and cognitive load of carrying out complex planning tasks.

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Supplemental Material for Assessment of Planning Ability: Psychometric Analyses on the Unidimensionality and Construct Validity of the Tower of London Task (TOL-F)

Neuropsychology ◽

10.1037/neu0000238.supp ◽

2015 ◽

Keyword(s):

Construct Validity ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Planning Ability ◽

Psychometric Analyses

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Assessment of planning ability: Psychometric analyses on the unidimensionality and construct validity of the Tower of London Task (TOL-F).

Neuropsychology ◽

10.1037/neu0000238 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 30 (3) ◽

pp. 346-360 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Rudolf Debelak ◽

Johanna Egle ◽

Lena Köstering ◽

Christoph P. Kaller

Keyword(s):

Construct Validity ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Planning Ability ◽

Psychometric Analyses

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Assessing Planning Ability Across the Adult Life Span in a Large Population-Representative Sample: Reliability Estimates and Normative Data for the Tower of London (TOL-F) Task

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society ◽

10.1017/s1355617718001248 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 25 (05) ◽

pp. 520-529 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Josef M. Unterrainer ◽

Benjamin Rahm ◽

Christoph P. Kaller ◽

Philipp S. Wild ◽

Thomas Münzel ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Representative Sample ◽

Normative Data ◽

Large Population ◽

Adult Life ◽

Health Study ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Adult Life Span ◽

Gutenberg Health Study ◽

Reliability Estimates ◽

Planning Ability

AbstractObjectives:The Tower of London (TOL) test has probably become the most often used task to assess planning ability in clinical and experimental settings. Since its implementation, efforts were made to provide a task version with adequate psychometric properties, but extensive normative data are not publicly available until now. The computerized TOL-Freiburg Version (TOL-F) was developed based on theory-grounded task analyses, and its psychometric adequacy has been repeatedly demonstrated in several studies but often with small and selective samples.Method:In the present study, we now report reliability estimates and normative data for the TOL-F stratified for age, sex, and education from a large population-representative sample collected in the Gutenberg Health Study in Mainz, Germany (n=7703; 40–80 years).Results:The present data confirm previously reported adequate indices of reliability (>.70) of the TOL-F. We also provide normative data for the TOL-F stratified for age (5-year intervals), sex, and education (lowvs. high education).Conclusions:Together, its adequate reliability and the representative age-, sex-, and education-fair normative data render the computerized TOL-F a suitable diagnostic instrument to assess planning ability. (JINS, 2019,25, 520–529)

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Planning Ability Following Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: Performance on a 4-Disk Version of the Tower of London

Brain Impairment ◽

10.1375/brim.10.3.320 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 320-324 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

David Shum ◽

Hannah Gill ◽

Miranda Banks ◽

Annick Maujean ◽

Janelle Griffin ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Traumatic Brain Injury ◽

Prefrontal Cortex ◽

Brain Injury ◽

Adverse Effects ◽

Severe Traumatic Brain Injury ◽

Group Differences ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Planning Ability ◽

Planning Problems

AbstractThis study aimed to assess planning ability in adults with traumatic brain injury (TBI) using a 4-disk version of the Tower of London (TOL). Thirty three individuals with TBI were compared with equivalent numbers of matched controls. Overall, the TOL4 was shown to be sensitive to the effects of brain injury, with the TBI group performing significantly more poorly on this version of the planning test than the matched controls. More specifically, group differences were found to be related to the complexity of the planning problems, particularly among a TBI subgroup with localised prefrontal damage. Results of the study provide support for the adverse effects of TBI on planning ability, and the important role of the prefrontal cortex in planning.

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Neural correlates of planning ability: Frontal lobe activation during the tower of London test

Schizophrenia Research ◽

10.1016/0920-9964(93)90454-q ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 9 (2-3) ◽

pp. 211

Author(s):

B.K. Toone ◽

R.G. Morris ◽

S. Ahmed ◽

G.M. Syed

Keyword(s):

Frontal Lobe ◽

Neural Correlates ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Planning Ability

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Planning abilities of children aged 4 years and 9 months to 8 1/2 years: Effects of age, fluid intelligence and school type on performance in the Tower of London test

Dementia & Neuropsychologia ◽

10.1590/s1980-57642009dn20100006 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 2 (1) ◽

pp. 26-30 ◽

Cited By ~ 7

Author(s):

Leandro Fernandes Malloy-Diniz ◽

Cláudia Cardoso-Martins ◽

Elaine Pacheco Nassif ◽

Angela Maria Levy ◽

Wellington Borges Leite ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Environmental Factor ◽

Private School ◽

Fluid Intelligence ◽

Test Methods ◽

School Type ◽

School Students ◽

Tower Of London ◽

Planning Ability ◽

The Relationship ◽

Type Of School

Abstract The present study investigated the relationship between age and one type of environmental factor, namely, type of school (i.e., private vs. public), and the development of mental planning ability, as measured by the Tower of London (TOL) test. Methods: Participants comprised 197 public and 174 private school students, ranging in age from 4 years and 9 months to 8 years and 6 months. Besides the TOL test, students were administered Raven's Colored Matrices. Results: Results confirmed the findings of previous studies that both age and school type are important predictors of mental planning. Furthermore, results also suggest that the relationship between type of school and mental planning ability cannot be accounted for by differences in students' fluid intelligence. Conclusion: In the present study, the TOL test continued to differentiate public from private school students, even after we controlled for the effect of differences on the Raven test.

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