Opposing functions of β-arrestin 1 and 2 in Parkinson’s disease via microglia inflammation and Nprl3

Abstract Background Although β-arrestins (ARRBs) regulate diverse physiological and pathophysiological processes, their function and regulation in Parkinson’s disease (PD) remain poorly defined. Methods We measured expression of ARRB1 and ARRB2 in liposaccharide (LPS)-induced and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD mice. ARRB1-deficient and ARRB2-deficient mouse were used to assess the impact of ARRBs on dopaminergic (DA) neuron loss and microglia activation in PD mouse models. After primary mouse DA neurons were exposed to the conditioned medium from ARRB1 knockdown or ARRB2 knockout microglia stimulated by LPS plus interferon γ (IFN-γ), the degeneration of DA neurons was quantified. Gain- and loss-of-function studies were used to study the effects of ARRBs on microglia activation in vitro. To further understand the mechanism, we measured the activation of classical inflammatory pathways and used RNA sequencing to identify the novel downstream effector of ARRBs. Result In this study, we demonstrate that expression of ARRB1 and ARRB2, particularly in microglia, is reciprocally regulated in PD mouse models. ARRB1 ablation ameliorates, whereas ARRB2 knockout aggravates, the pathological features of PD, including DA neuron loss, neuroinflammation and microglia activation in vivo, as well as microglia-mediated neuron damage and inflammation in vitro. In parallel, ARRB1 and ARRB2 produce adverse effects on the activation of inflammatory signal transducers and activators of transcription 1 (STAT1) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways in microglia. We also show that two ARRBs competitively interact with activated p65 in the NF-κB pathway and that nitrogen permease regulator-like 3 (Nprl3), a functionally poorly characterized protein, is a novel effector acting downstream of both ARRBs. Conclusion Collectively, these data demonstrate that two closely related ARRBs have completely opposite functions in microglia-mediated inflammatory responses, via Nprl3, and differentially affect the pathogenesis of PD, and suggest a potential therapeutic strategy.

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Maackiain Ameliorates 6-Hydroxydopamine and SNCA Pathologies by Modulating the PINK1/Parkin Pathway in Models of Parkinson’s Disease in Caenorhabditis elegans and the SH-SY5Y Cell Line

International Journal of Molecular Sciences ◽

10.3390/ijms21124455 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 21 (12) ◽

pp. 4455

Author(s):

Rong-Tzong Tsai ◽

Chia-Wen Tsai ◽

Shih-Ping Liu ◽

Jia-Xin Gao ◽

Yun-Hua Kuo ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Caenorhabditis Elegans ◽

Cell Line ◽

Ubiquitin Proteasome System ◽

Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta ◽

Neuron Damage ◽

6 Hydroxydopamine

The movement disorder Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most frequently diagnosed neurodegenerative disease, and is associated with aging, the environment, and genetic factors. The intracellular aggregation of α-synuclein and the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta are the pathological hallmark of PD. At present, there is no successful treatment for PD. Maackiain (MK) is a flavonoid extracted from dried roots of Sophora flavescens Aiton. MK has emerged as a novel agent for PD treatment that acts by inhibiting monoamine oxidase B. In this study, we assessed the neuroprotective potential of MK in Caenorhabditis elegans and investigated possible mechanism of this neuroprotection in the human SH-SY5Y cell line. We found that MK significantly reduced dopaminergic neuron damage in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-exposed worms of the BZ555 strain, with corresponding improvements in food-sensing behavior and life-span. In transgenic worms of strain NL5901 treated with 0.25 mM MK, the accumulation of α-synuclein was diminished by 27% (p < 0.01) compared with that in untreated worms. Moreover, in worms and the SH-SY5Y cell line, we confirmed that the mechanism of MK-mediated protection against PD pathology may include blocking apoptosis, enhancing the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and augmenting autophagy by increasing PINK1/parkin expression. The use of small interfering RNA to downregulate parkin expression in vivo and in vitro could reverse the benefits of MK in PD models. MK may have considerable therapeutic applications in PD.

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Camptothecin regulates microglia polarization and exerts neuroprotective effects via the AKT/Nrf2/HO-1-NF-κB signal axis in vivo and in vitro

10.21203/rs.3.rs-27607/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

dewei he ◽

dianfeng liu ◽

ang zhou ◽

xiyu gao ◽

yufei zhang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Substantia Nigra ◽

Cell Line ◽

Dopaminergic Neuron ◽

Inflammatory Responses ◽

Neuroprotective Effects ◽

Microglia Polarization

Abstract Background Parkinson's disease (PD), the second largest neurodegenerative disease seriously affects human health. Microglia, the main immune cells in the brain participate in the innate immune response in the central nervous system (CNS). Studies have shown that microglia can be polarized into pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes. Accumulated evidences suggest that over-activated M1 microglia release pro-inflammatory mediators that damage neurons and lead to Parkinson's disease (PD). In contrast, M2 microglia release neuroprotective factors and exert the effects of neuroprotection. Camptothecin (CPT), an extract of the plant Camptotheca acuminate, has been reported to have anti-inflammation and antitumor effects. However the effect of CPT on microglia polarization and microglia-mediated inflammation responses has not been reported. Therefore, we aim to explore the effect of CPT on microglia polarization and its underlying mechanism on neuroinflammation. Methods C57BL/6 mice (25–30 g) were injected LPS or PBS into the substantia nigra (SN). Open-Field Test and Immunohistochemistry were performed to test the dyskinesia of mice and the loss of neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Microglia cell line BV-2, the neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y and dopaminergic neuron MN9D cell were cultured. Cytotoxicity assay, reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blot, ELISA and Immunofluorescence staining were performed. All results were presented with mean ± SD. Results In vivo, CPT improved dyskinesia of mice, reduced the loss of neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and inhibited neuro-inflammatory responses in LPS-injected mice. In vitro, CPT inhibited M1 polarization of microglia and promotes M2 polarization via the AKT/Nrf2/HO-1-NF-κB signal axis. Furthermore, CPT protected the neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y and dopaminergic neuron cell line MN9D from neurotoxicity of mediated by microglia activation. Conclusion CPT regulates the microglia polarization phenotype via the AKT/Nrf2/HO-1-NF-κB signal axis, inhibits neuro-inflammatory responses and exerts neuroprotective effects in vivo and in vitro.

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A Novel Synthetic Precursor of Styryl Sulfone Neuroprotective Agents Inhibits Neuroinflammatory Responses and Oxidative Stress Damage through the P38 Signaling Pathway in the Cell and Animal Model of Parkinson’s Disease

Molecules ◽

10.3390/molecules26175371 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 26 (17) ◽

pp. 5371

Author(s):

Ying Guo ◽

Zhizhong Ma ◽

Xianling Ning ◽

Ying Chen ◽

Chao Tian ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Inflammatory Responses ◽

Neuroprotective Effect ◽

Detoxification Enzymes ◽

Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase ◽

Related Factor ◽

Apoptosis Pathway

A novel class of styryl sulfones were designed and synthesized as CAPE derivatives by our work team, which showed a multi-target neuroprotective effect, including antioxidative and anti-neuroinflammatory properties. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, the anti-Parkinson’s disease (PD) activity of 10 novel styryl sulfone compounds was screened by the cell viability test and the NO inhibition test in vitro. It was found that 4d exhibited the highest activity against PD among them. In a MPTP-induced mouse model of PD, the biological activity of 4d was validated through suppressing dopamine neurotoxicity, microglial activation, and astrocytes activation. With compound 4d, we conducted the mechanistic studies about anti-inflammatory responses through inhibition of p38 phosphorylation to protect dopaminergic neurons, and antioxidant effects through promoting nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). The results revealed that 4d could significantly inhibit 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine/1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPTP/MPP+)-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation in both in vitro and in vivo PD models, thus inhibiting the NF-κB-mediated neuroinflammation-related apoptosis pathway. Simultaneously, it could promote Nrf2 nuclear transfer, and upregulate the expression of antioxidant phase II detoxification enzymes HO-1 and GCLC, and then reduce oxidative damage.

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Basal mitophagy is widespread in Drosophila but minimally affected by loss of Pink1 or parkin

10.1101/235077 ◽

2018 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Juliette J. Lee ◽

Alvaro Sanchez-Martinez ◽

Aitor Martinez Zarate ◽

Cristiane Benincá ◽

Ugo Mayor ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Dopaminergic Neurons ◽

Flight Muscle ◽

Substantial Impact ◽

Physiological Conditions ◽

The Impact ◽

Dopaminergic Neuron Loss

AbstractParkinson’s disease factors, PINK1 and parkin, are strongly implicated in stress-induced mitophagy in vitro, but little is known about their impact on basal mitophagy in vivo. We generated transgenic Drosophila expressing fluorescent mitophagy reporters to evaluate the impact of Pink1/parkin mutations on basal mitophagy under physiological conditions. We find that mitophagy is readily detectable and abundant in many tissues including Parkinson’s disease relevant dopaminergic neurons. However, we did not detect mitolysosomes in flight muscle. Surprisingly, in Pink1 or parkin null flies we did not observe any substantial impact on basal mitophagy. As these flies exhibit locomotor defects and dopaminergic neuron loss, our findings raise questions about current assumptions of the pathogenic mechanism associated with the PINK1/Parkin pathway. Our findings provide evidence that Pink1 and parkin are not essential for bulk basal mitophagy in Drosophila. They also emphasize that mechanisms underpinning basal mitophagy remain largely obscure.SummaryPINK1/parkin are key mediators of stress-induced mitophagy in vitro but their impact on basal mitophagy in vivo is unclear. Novel Drosophila reporters lines reveal abundant mitophagy in many tissues including dopaminergic neurons but is unaffected by loss of PINK1/parkin.

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Basal mitophagy is widespread in Drosophila but minimally affected by loss of Pink1 or parkin

The Journal of Cell Biology ◽

10.1083/jcb.201801044 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 217 (5) ◽

pp. 1613-1622 ◽

Cited By ~ 94

Author(s):

Juliette J. Lee ◽

Alvaro Sanchez-Martinez ◽

Aitor Martinez Zarate ◽

Cristiane Benincá ◽

Ugo Mayor ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Dopaminergic Neurons ◽

Substantial Impact ◽

Physiological Conditions ◽

The Impact ◽

Dopaminergic Neuron Loss ◽

Transgenic Drosophila

The Parkinson’s disease factors PINK1 and parkin are strongly implicated in stress-induced mitophagy in vitro, but little is known about their impact on basal mitophagy in vivo. We generated transgenic Drosophila melanogaster expressing fluorescent mitophagy reporters to evaluate the impact of Pink1/parkin mutations on basal mitophagy under physiological conditions. We find that mitophagy is readily detectable and abundant in many tissues, including Parkinson’s disease–relevant dopaminergic neurons. However, we did not detect mitolysosomes in flight muscle. Surprisingly, in Pink1 or parkin null flies, we did not observe any substantial impact on basal mitophagy. Because these flies exhibit locomotor defects and dopaminergic neuron loss, our findings raise questions about current assumptions of the pathogenic mechanism associated with the PINK1/parkin pathway. Our findings provide evidence that Pink1 and parkin are not essential for bulk basal mitophagy in Drosophila. They also emphasize that mechanisms underpinning basal mitophagy remain largely obscure.

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Curative Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Chinese Optimized Yinxieling Formula in Models of Parkinson’s Disease

Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine ◽

10.1155/2018/6142065 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 2018 ◽

pp. 1-12 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

RenRong Wei ◽

Jing OuYang ◽

WeiXian Lin ◽

TongXiang Lin

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Mouse Models ◽

Inflammatory Responses ◽

Killer Cell ◽

Glial Activation ◽

Receptor Interaction ◽

Therapeutic Benefits

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is marked by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons (DAN) accompanied by glial activation. Thus, inhibiting glial activation that occurs during this disease could be an effective method for treating PD. Optimized Yinxieling Formula (OYF), a Chinese medicinal formula, which is used to efficiently treat autoimmune disease psoriasis, has been proved to display potential immunomodulatory effects in inflammation-associated diseases. This study assessed the therapeutic benefits of OYF on glial-mediated neuroinflammation and neuroprotection in PD models in vitro and in vivo. First, the results showed that OYF significantly suppresses LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokine secretion and attenuates the overall inflammatory responses in BV-2 cells. Second, in vivo studies confirm that while the validity of our MPTP-induced PD mouse models possesses activated glia and significant neurobehavioral dysfunction, pretreatment with OYF prevents glial activation and ameliorates movement dysfunction in the MPTP-induced PD mouse models as evaluated by the pole and rotarod tests. Third, transcriptomic analyses were carried out to reveal the underlying molecular mechanism of the OYF treatment. Sixteen pathways were significantly upregulated in the OYF-treated PD model mice, including the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, cell adhesion molecules, coagulation, and complement cascades. Fifteen pathways were significantly downregulated in the OYF-treated PD model mice, such as the natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity, hematopoietic cell lineage, phagosome, and others. These pathways share direct or indirect features of immunomodulation, suggesting that the physiological effects of OYF involve key roles of immune and inflammation regulations. Therefore, we prove that OYF is a useful immunomodulatory formula in developing prevention and treatment methods for neurodegenerative disease PD.

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Tubeimoside I Protects Dopaminergic Neurons Against Inflammation-Mediated Damage in Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-Evoked Model of Parkinson’s Disease in Rats

International Journal of Molecular Sciences ◽

10.3390/ijms19082242 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 19 (8) ◽

pp. 2242 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Dewei He ◽

Bingxu Huang ◽

Shoupeng Fu ◽

Yuhang Li ◽

Xin Ran ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Rat Model ◽

Dopaminergic Neurons ◽

Inflammatory Responses ◽

Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta ◽

Peripheral Tissues ◽

Tubeimoside I

Parkinson’s disease (PD), a frequent degenerative disease in the elderly, is characterized by dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Neuroinflammation caused by over-activated microglia plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of PD. Tubeimoside I (TBMS1) has a broad anti-inflammatory effect in peripheral tissues, but the effect on neuroinflammation has not been reported. Therefore, we explored whether TBMS1 could protect dopaminergic neurons by inhibiting the activation of microglia in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced PD rat model. In addition, then, the effect and mechanism of TBMS1 on neuroinflammation were assessed in LPS-exposed murine microglial BV-2 cells. The results in vivo showed that TBMS1 suppressed microglial activation and dopaminergic neurons’ reduction in LPS-injected PD rat model. In vitro study found that TBMS1 could inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory responses in BV-2 cells, and this effect was mediated by suppressing the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB p65), p38 and extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK1/2). Taken together, these results demonstrated for the first time that TBMS1 played a role in protecting dopaminergic neurons by inhibiting neuroinflammation mediated by microglia.

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Camptothecin regulates microglia polarization and exerts neuroprotective effects via the AKT/Nrf2/HO-1-NF-κB signal axis in vivo and in vitro

10.21203/rs.3.rs-46120/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

dewei he ◽

Dianfeng Liu ◽

Ang Zhou ◽

Xiyu Gao ◽

Yufei Zhang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Substantia Nigra ◽

Cell Line ◽

Dopaminergic Neuron ◽

Inflammatory Responses ◽

Neuroprotective Effects ◽

Microglia Polarization

Abstract Background Parkinson's disease (PD), the second largest neurodegenerative disease seriously affects human health. Microglia, the main immune cells in the brain participate in the innate immune response in the central nervous system (CNS). Studies have shown that microglia can be polarized into pro-inflammatory M1 and anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes. Accumulated evidences suggest that over-activated M1 microglia release pro-inflammatory mediators that damage neurons and lead to Parkinson's disease (PD). In contrast, M2 microglia release neuroprotective factors and exert the effects of neuroprotection. Camptothecin (CPT), an extract of the plant Camptotheca acuminate, has been reported to have anti-inflammation and antitumor effects. However the effect of CPT on microglia polarization and microglia-mediated inflammation responses has not been reported. Therefore, we aim to explore the effect of CPT on microglia polarization and its underlying mechanism on neuroinflammation. Methods C57BL/6 mice (25–30 g) were injected LPS or PBS into the substantia nigra (SN). Open-Field Test and Immunohistochemistry were performed to test the dyskinesia of mice and the loss of neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Microglia cell line BV-2, the neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y and dopaminergic neuron MN9D cell were cultured. Cytotoxicity assay, reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blot, ELISA and Immunofluorescence staining were performed. All results were presented with mean ± SD. Results In vivo, CPT improved dyskinesia of mice, reduced the loss of neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and inhibited neuro-inflammatory responses in LPS-injected mice. In vitro, CPT inhibited M1 polarization of microglia and promotes M2 polarization via the AKT/Nrf2/HO-1-NF-κB signal axis. Furthermore, CPT protected the neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y and dopaminergic neuron cell line MN9D from neurotoxicity of mediated by microglia activation. Conclusion CPT regulates the microglia polarization phenotype via the AKT/Nrf2/HO-1-NF-κB signal axis, inhibits neuro-inflammatory responses and exerts neuroprotective effects in vivo and in vitro.

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Multiple Pathways of LRRK2-G2019S/Rab10 Interaction in Dopaminergic Neurons

Journal of Parkinson s Disease ◽

10.3233/jpd-202421 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-16

Author(s):

Alison Fellgett ◽

C. Adam Middleton ◽

Jack Munns ◽

Chris Ugbode ◽

David Jaciuch ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Dopaminergic Neurons ◽

Genetic Interaction ◽

In Vitro Assays ◽

Rab Proteins ◽

Circadian Activity ◽

Loss Of Function ◽

Lrrk2 G2019s

Background: Inherited mutations in the LRRK2 protein are the common causes of Parkinson’s disease, but the mechanisms by which increased kinase activity of mutant LRRK2 leads to pathological events remain to be determined. In vitro assays (heterologous cell culture, phospho-protein mass spectrometry) suggest that several Rab proteins might be directly phosphorylated by LRRK2-G2019S. An in vivo screen of Rab expression in dopaminergic neurons in young adult Drosophila demonstrated a strong genetic interaction between LRRK2-G2019S and Rab10. Objective: To determine if Rab10 is necessary for LRRK2-induced pathophysiological responses in the neurons that control movement, vision, circadian activity, and memory. These four systems were chosen because they are modulated by dopaminergic neurons in both humans and flies. Methods: LRRK2-G2019S was expressed in Drosophila dopaminergic neurons and the effects of Rab10 depletion on Proboscis Extension, retinal neurophysiology, circadian activity pattern (‘sleep’), and courtship memory determined in aged flies. Results: Rab10 loss-of-function rescued LRRK2-G2019S induced bradykinesia and retinal signaling deficits. Rab10 knock-down, however, did not rescue the marked sleep phenotype which results from dopaminergic LRRK2-G2019S. Courtship memory is not affected by LRRK2, but is markedly improved by Rab10 depletion. Anatomically, both LRRK2-G2019S and Rab10 are seen in the cytoplasm and at the synaptic endings of dopaminergic neurons. Conclusion: We conclude that, in Drosophila dopaminergic neurons, Rab10 is involved in some, but not all, LRRK2-induced behavioral deficits. Therefore, variations in Rab expression may contribute to susceptibility of different dopaminergic nuclei to neurodegeneration seen in people with Parkinson’s disease.

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