The gut microbiome (GM), a complex community of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi located in the gut of humans and animals, plays significant roles in host health and disease. Animal models are widely used to investigate human diseases in biomedical research and the GM within animal models can change due to the impact of many factors, such as the vendor, husbandry, and environment. Notably, variations in GM can contribute to differences in disease model phenotypes, which can result in poor reproducibility in biomedical research. Variation in the gut microbiome can also impact the translatability of animal models. For example, standard lab mice have different pathogen exposure experiences when compared to wild or pet store mice. As humans have antigen experiences that are more similar to the latter, the use of lab mice with more simplified microbiomes may not yield optimally translatable data. Additionally, the literature describes many methods to manipulate the GM and differences between these methods can also result in differing interpretations of outcomes measures. In this review, we focus on the GM as a potential contributor to the poor reproducibility and translatability of mouse models of disease. First, we summarize the important role of GM in host disease and health through different gut–organ axes and the close association between GM and disease susceptibility through colonization resistance, immune response, and metabolic pathways. Then, we focus on the variation in the microbiome in mouse models of disease and address how this variation can potentially impact disease phenotypes and subsequently influence research reproducibility and translatability. We also discuss the variations between genetic substrains as potential factors that cause poor reproducibility via their effects on the microbiome. In addition, we discuss the utility of complex microbiomes in prospective studies and how manipulation of the GM through differing transfer methods can impact model phenotypes. Lastly, we emphasize the need to explore appropriate methods of GM characterization and manipulation.
Precise allele-specific genome editing by spatiotemporal control of CRISPR-Cas9 via pronuclear transplantation
