69 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in 2020 US Corn Grain and Corn By-product Feeds

2021 ◽  
Vol 99 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 36-37
Author(s):  
Paige N Gott ◽  
Erin Schwandt ◽  
Shelby M Ramirez ◽  
Ursula Hofstetter ◽  
Raj Murugesan
Keyword(s):  
Limit Of Detection ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Contamination Level ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Mycotoxin Contamination ◽  
Contamination Levels ◽  
And Performance ◽  
Harvest Year ◽  
By Products ◽  
Corn Grain

Abstract Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites that limit animal health and performance through various negative effects including reduced feed intake, diarrhea, and compromised immune function. These toxic metabolites have been detected in a broad range of feedstuffs worldwide. This study investigated mycotoxin occurrence and contamination levels in U.S. corn grain samples marked as 2020 harvest year and corn by-product feed samples submitted since October 2020. Samples were screened via LC-MS/MS for six major mycotoxin groups including: aflatoxins, type A trichothecenes, type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A. Results from samples that were above the limit of detection for each respective mycotoxin group were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure (SAS 9.4, Cary, NC) to test the effect of harvest year on mean contamination level. Results are presented in Table 1. Occurrence levels of B-Trich, ZEN, and FUM in 2020 corn grain are numerically lower than those from 2019. Mean B-Trich level (parts per billion, ppb) for corn grain samples harvested in 2020 was similar to 2019 crop year. Contamination levels of FUM and ZEN were similar for 2020 crop as compared to prior harvest years. Mycotoxin occurrence in corn by-product feeds continued to be high at 99, 85, and 95% for B-Trich, ZEN, and FUM, respectively. Mean B-Trich and ZEN levels in 2020 corn by-products were similar to respective contamination levels in 2018, but were lower than 2019 samples. Mean FUM contamination in corn by-products has been similar across reported years. Preliminary results of the 2020 corn grain survey indicate mean mycotoxin contamination levels are similar to those observed the past two crop years while levels of B-Trich and ZEN in corn by-product feeds are reduced from 2019. Corn-based feed ingredients may present challenges to producers due to the presence of mycotoxin contamination, therefore, continued monitoring is warranted.

336 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in 2020 US Pasture Grasses and Harvested Hay Feed Ingredients

2021 ◽  
Vol 99 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 183-184
Author(s):  
Erin Schwandt ◽  
Paige N Gott ◽  
Shelby M Ramirez ◽  
Ursula Hofstetter ◽  
Raj Murugesan
Keyword(s):  
Limit Of Detection ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Reproductive Function ◽  
Contamination Level ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Mycotoxin Contamination ◽  
Pasture Grasses ◽  
And Performance ◽  
Harvest Year ◽  
Concentration Levels

Abstract Mycotoxins are harmful secondary fungal metabolites which limit animal health and performance through various negative effects such as reduced feed intake, diarrhea, and compromised immune and reproductive function. These metabolites are found in a variety of feedstuffs worldwide. This study monitored mycotoxin occurrence and contamination levels in fresh pasture grasses and harvested dry hay from across the US. Samples were screened for six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins, type A trichothecenes (A-Trich), type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A via LC-MS/MS. Samples that were above the limit of detection for each mycotoxin group were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS (SAS 9.4, Cary, NC) to test the effect of harvest year on average contamination level. Results are presented in Table 1. Zearalenone and B-Trich contamination prevalence for fresh grass samples was lower in 2020 compared to the previous two years. A-Trich tested positive in 34% of samples which was greater in 2020 compared to 2018 and 2019. Mean concentration levels (parts per billion, ppb) for B-Trich, ZEN, A-Trich were not different in 2020 compared to the previous two years. Prevalence of mycotoxin contamination for dry harvested hay samples for B-Trich and ZEN decreased in 2020 compared to the previous two years, but 64 and 28% of samples tested positive, respectively. A-Trich prevalence was greater than the last two years and resulted in 17% of samples testing positive compared to 0 and 6% in 2018 and 2019, respectively. Mean B-Trich levels in 2020 were similar to levels seen in 2018 and lower than 2019 (P = 0.005). Mean ZEN and A-Trich concentration levels averaged 1,612 ppb and 796 ppb, respectively. Mycotoxin analysis of pasture grasses and harvested hay forages is warranted to identify potential sources of mycotoxin contamination in ruminant diets.

136 Mycotoxin Contamination in United States Corn and Corn DDGS from 2019 and 2020 Harvest

2021 ◽  
Vol 99 (Supplement_1) ◽  
pp. 73-74
Author(s):  
Lan Zheng ◽  
Chasity Pender ◽  
Paige N Gott ◽  
Erin F Schwandt ◽  
Shelby M Ramirez ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Disease Incidence ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Mitigation Strategies ◽  
Experimental Unit ◽  
Contamination Level ◽  
Mycotoxin Contamination ◽  
Contamination Levels ◽  
Harvest Year ◽  
Corn Ddgs

Abstract Mycotoxins are harmful secondary fungal metabolites central to food and feed safety management. These toxins are detrimental to animal health and even at low levels can compromise performance. Focus on clinical signs like decreased feed intake and vomiting overlook significant impacts of mycotoxicosis, including increased disease incidence and severity, immune dysfunction, inflammation, and modulation of the gastrointestinal environment. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of harvest year on five major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins (Afla), type A trichothecenes (A-Trich), type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), and zearalenone (ZEN) in corn and corn DDGS samples. For each mycotoxin group within ingredient, 2019 harvest (329 corn and 20 corn DDGS) were compared with 2020 harvest (27 corn and 21 corn DDGS). Data were analyzed using GLIMMIX procedure of SAS with harvest year as fixed effect and sample as the experimental unit. Average B-Trich and FUM contamination levels in corn are significantly (P < 0.05) affected by harvest year. However, B-Trich levels remained consistent, whereas FUM decreased (P < 0.05) from 2019 to 2020. Contamination levels in corn for Afla, A-Trich, and ZEN have remained consistent (P > 0.05) from 2019 to 2020. In corn DDGS, B-Trich contamination level was decreased (P < 0.05) from 2019 to 2020, whereas FUM and ZEN contamination levels remained similar (P > 0.05). The 2020 crop risk profile is likely to change as the sample pool expands. A combination of hot weather, storm events, and drought during the 2020 growing season resulted in crop stress and damage, ultimately leading to grain quality and mycotoxin contamination concerns. Due to the continued risk of mycotoxin co-occurrence, expanding mitigation strategies beyond adsorption by mycotoxin deactivation with biotransformation and additional support of immune and liver function is essential.

scholarly journals 60 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in 2019 US Corn-based Feed Ingredients

2020 ◽  
Vol 98 (Supplement_4) ◽  
pp. 36-37
Author(s):  
Erin F Schwandt ◽  
Paige N Gott ◽  
Erika G Hendel ◽  
Shelby M Ramirez ◽  
G Raj Murugesan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Animal Health ◽  
Fungal Metabolites ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Sample Mean ◽  
Feed Ingredients ◽  
Type A Trichothecenes ◽  
Contamination Levels ◽  
La Jolla ◽  
Gluten Feed ◽  
Corn Grain

Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that are detrimental to animal health and productivity. This study investigated occurrence and contamination levels of mycotoxins in the 2019 US corn harvest, including corn grain and corn byproduct feed ingredients (distillers dried grains, gluten feed, etc.). Corn samples from the 2019 harvest and corn DDGS and other byproducts from October 2019 through April 2020 were screened via the LC-MS/MS technique for the presence of six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins, type A trichothecenes, type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A. Parameters of the main toxins found were compared to the two prior harvest years using the Kruskal-Wallis Test (Prism7, GraphPad, La Jolla, CA) and are presented in Table 1. Mean toxin count per sample in corn grain was similar in 2019 as 2018, with just over two toxins per sample. Mean B-Trich level (parts per billion, ppb) was elevated in 2019 from 2017. Fumonisin contamination increased in 2019 compared to 2017, and prevalence was similar to 2018. Zearalenone contamination and prevalence were similar in 2019 compared to 2018 levels. Co-contamination in corn byproduct feeds was steady, averaging nearly three toxins per sample. Mean B-Trich contamination was higher than the 2017 crop, and FUM contamination was higher in 2019 than 2017 and 2018. Zearalenone levels in 2019 byproducts are the highest seen in the past three years. Preliminary results of the 2019 corn-based feed ingredients survey suggest mycotoxin occurrence and contamination levels are approaching those observed in the challenging 2018 crop. Furthermore, there are continued concerns for co-contamination and greater ZEN contamination that may impose negative effects on growth, health and reproductive performance in ruminants.

scholarly journals 359 Occurrence of mycotoxins in 2018 us corn-based feed ingredients

2019 ◽  
Vol 97 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 126-127
Author(s):  
Paige N Gott ◽  
Erika G Hendel ◽  
Shelby M Curry ◽  
Ursula Hofstetter ◽  
G Raj Murugesan
Keyword(s):  
Animal Health ◽  
Corn Silage ◽  
Sample Mean ◽  
Feed Ingredients ◽  
Type A Trichothecenes ◽  
Contamination Levels ◽  
La Jolla ◽  
Gluten Feed ◽  
By Products ◽  
Corn Grain

Abstract Mycotoxins are harmful secondary fungal metabolites that are detrimental to animal health and productivity. This study investigated occurrence and contamination levels of mycotoxins in the 2018 US corn harvest including corn grain, corn silage and corn by-product feed ingredients (distillers dried grains, gluten feed, etc.). Corn and corn silage samples marked as 2018 harvest from feed mills, livestock producers, and integrators and corn DDGS and other by-products from mid-August 2018 through January 2019 were screened via the LC-MS/MS technique for the presence of six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins, type A trichothecenes, type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin. Parameters of the main toxins found were compared to the two prior harvest years using the Kruskal-Wallis Test (Prism7, GraphPad, La Jolla, CA) and are presented in Table 1. Mean toxin count per sample in corn grain increased in 2018 versus 2017, returning to over two toxins per sample as in 2016. Mean B-Trich level (ppb) is elevated in 2018 from 2017. Although ZEN contamination does not differ from prior years, prevalence increased to 45% from 25% in 2017. Co-contamination in corn by-product feeds is steady, averaging nearly three toxins per sample. Mean B-Trich is higher than the 2017 crop, while FUM contamination is similar to 2017. ZEN levels in 2018 by-products are the highest seen in the past three years. Corn silage has increased in mean toxin count per sample and contamination levels of B-Trich and ZEN in 2018 versus 2017. Prevalence of B-trich has remained constant from year to year, while both ZEN and FUM prevalence have increased from 2017 to 2018. Preliminary results of the 2018 corn-based feed ingredients survey suggest mycotoxin occurrence and contamination levels are approaching those observed in the challenging 2016 crop with continued concerns for co-contamination.

scholarly journals Co-Occurrence of 35 Mycotoxins: A Seven-Year Survey of Corn Grain and Corn Silage in the United States

Toxins ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (8) ◽  
pp. 516
Author(s):  
Alexandra C. Weaver ◽  
Daniel M. Weaver ◽  
Nicholas Adams ◽  
Alexandros Yiannikouris
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Fusaric Acid ◽  
Fumonisin B1 ◽  
The United States ◽  
Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography ◽  
Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass ◽  
And Performance ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Corn Grain

Mycotoxins contaminate crops worldwide and play a role in animal health and performance. Multiple mycotoxins may co-occur which may increase the impact on the animal. To assess the multiple mycotoxin profile of corn (Zea mays), we conducted a 7-year survey of new crop corn grain and silage in the United States. A total of 711 grain and 1117 silage samples were collected between 2013 and 2019 and analyzed for the simultaneous presence of 35 mycotoxins using ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The measured mean number of mycotoxins per sample were 4.8 (grain) and 5.2 (silage), ranging from 0 to 13. Fusaric acid (FA) was most frequently detected in 78.1 and 93.8% of grains and silages, respectively, followed by deoxynivalenol (DON) in 75.7 and 88.2% of samples. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15ADON) followed. The greatest (p < 0.05) co-occurrence was between FA and DON in 59.1% of grains and 82.7% of silages, followed by FA with FB1, DON with 15ADON, and FA with 15ADON. Although many samples had lower mycotoxin concentrations, 1.6% (grain) and 7.9% (silage) of tested samples had DON ≥ 5000 µg/kg. Fumonisins were detected ≥ 10,000 µg/kg in 9.6 and 3.9% of grain and silage samples, respectively. Concentrations in grain varied by year for eight mycotoxin groups (p < 0.05), while all 10 groups showed yearly variations in silage. Our survey suggest that multiple mycotoxins frequently co-occur in corn grain and silage in the Unites States, and some of the more prevalent mycotoxins are those that may not be routinely analyzed (i.e., FA and 15ADON). Assessment of multiple mycotoxins should be considered when developing management programs.

A comprehensive survey on the occurrence of mycotoxins in maize dried distillers' grain and solubles sourced worldwide

2012 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 83-88 ◽  
Author(s):  
I. Rodrigues ◽  
L. Chin
Keyword(s):  
Limit Of Detection ◽  
Raw Material ◽  
Alternative Ingredients ◽  
Comprehensive Survey ◽  
Negative Impacts ◽  
Contamination Levels ◽  
Distillers Grain ◽  
Aflatoxin B ◽  
Dried Distillers Grain ◽  
By Products

As cereal and protein sources suffer a price increase worldwide, the use of alternative ingredients in feeds has become increasingly appealing to the animal industry. Dried distillers' grain and solubles (DDGS) have been one of the ingredients which demand has dramatically increased over the last few years. In fact, the supply of maize DDGS is expected to increase to about 38.6 mmt by 2019-2020. The presence of mycotoxins in these by-products has been a matter of concern raised by their ubiquitous use. A rule of thumb typically used in the field is that the concentration of mycotoxins in the final by-product is about three times higher than that of the original raw material, which may be scientifically backed up by the fact that the remaining portions within the by-product are those which had a higher concentration of mycotoxins (outer portions of the grain). This paper is the outcome of a five-year study during which a total of 409 maize DDGS samples sourced worldwide were analysed for the mycotoxins of major importance which cause the great negative impacts in animal performance and health: aflatoxins (a sum of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2), zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, a sum fumonisins B1 and B2 and ochratoxin A. From the total of samples tested, only 2% of the analysed DDGS showed contamination levels below the limit of detection (negative samples). 6% of samples had the presence of 1 mycotoxin only and the majority (92% of the samples) was contaminated with 2 or more mycotoxins.

scholarly journals Hair Plucking and Alopecia in a Flock of Sheep in Zaria, Nigeria

2020 ◽  
Vol 17 (3) ◽  
pp. 34-36
Author(s):  
T. K. Bello ◽  
M. Hussaini ◽  
B. B. Oyelowo ◽  
R. Hassan ◽  
B. E. Oke ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Fine Particle ◽  
Faecal Sample ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Hair Pulling ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Nutritional Deficit ◽  
Sheep Farm ◽  
Feed Analysis ◽  
Ad Libitum ◽  
And Performance

This is a case report of hair plucking and alopecia in a flock of sheep in Zaria. Appearance of alopecia and hair pulling was noticed in an institutional sheep farm consisting of Balami, Uda and Yankasa breeds aged between 3-48 months. This was noticed over a period of 1 month in a total of 15 animals consisting of 9 ewes and 6 rams. Physical observations revealed alopecia. Blood samples and skin scrapings of the animals were negative for haemo- and ectoparasites, and faecal sample examinations were also negative. The feed analysis confirmed the correct nutrient requirement were compounded, but the feed consistency was observed to be too fine. Hay and/or pasture was not provided as required by the animals, hence, nutritional deficit was suspected. The finely ground feed was replaced with a coarse form and hay supplied ad libitum. The problem abated and the bare skin patches returned to normal in 4weeks after the diet was adjusted.  Feeding of these species of animals concentrates diets of fine particle and inadequate forage or hay could have negative effects on animal health and performance.

scholarly journals 67 Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Forage-Based Feeds from US and Canada

2020 ◽  
Vol 98 (Supplement_4) ◽  
pp. 35-36
Author(s):  
Paige N Gott ◽  
Erin F Schwandt ◽  
Shelby M Ramirez ◽  
Erika G Hendel ◽  
G Raj Murugesan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Limit Of Detection ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Current Data ◽  
Corn Silage ◽  
Fungal Metabolites ◽  
Data Set ◽  
The Us ◽  
Survey Results ◽  
Type A Trichothecenes ◽  
Contamination Levels

Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that contaminate a variety of feedstuffs and are detrimental to animal health and productivity. The risk of broad-spectrum mycotoxin exposure is elevated for ruminants due to the complexity of their diets. This study investigated the occurrence and contamination levels of mycotoxins in forage-based feeds including corn silage, haylage (including various cuttings of multiple forage sources), and straw samples from across the US and Canada. Samples were screened for the six major mycotoxin groups: aflatoxins, type A trichothecenes, type B trichothecenes (B-Trich), fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A via LC-MS/MS technique. Samples submitted for clinical health or performance concerns were excluded from the data set. The B-Trich occurred most frequently (95% positive) among 92 corn silage samples harvested in 2019 followed by ZEN (34%) and FUM (9%). Mean contamination levels (parts per billion, ppb) on dry matter basis were 2,788 ppb, 456 ppb, and 194 ppb, respectively. Only 4% of silage samples were below the limit of detection (LOD) for all mycotoxins evaluated. Among 20 haylage samples from 2019 crop year, B-Trich were the most frequently detected, with 50% of samples positive at a mean concentration of 3,222 ppb. Twenty-one 2019 straw samples were submitted for analysis, with 100% testing positive for some level of B-Trich (mean 2,001 ppb) and 81% ZEN positive with an average of 640 ppb. Seventy-one percent of straw samples were positive for both B-Trich and ZEN. Preliminary mycotoxin survey results from US and Canada suggest B-Trich and ZEN are the most frequently occurring major mycotoxins in 2019 forage-based feed samples. Based on the frequency and levels of mycotoxin contamination identified in the current data set, continued analysis of forage-based feeds is warranted as mycotoxins pose a potential risk to the health, performance, and reproductive success of ruminants.

Multi-mycotoxin profiling in maize reveals prevalence of Fusarium mycotoxins in South and West Ethiopia

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-12
Author(s):  
A. Mesfin ◽  
K. Tesfamariam ◽  
T. Belachew ◽  
S. De Saeger ◽  
C. Lachat ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Animal Feed ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Special Focus ◽  
Fusarium Mycotoxins ◽  
Ecological Zones ◽  
Mycotoxin Contamination ◽  
Protective Strategies ◽  
Contamination Levels ◽  
Aflatoxin B ◽  
Study Participants

Multi-mycotoxin exposure data are missing to guide risk assessment and legislation in Ethiopia. This study therefore aimed to determine mycotoxin contamination levels in maize samples from 176 randomly selected household storages in three agro ecological zones of South (Sidama zone) and West (Jimma zone) Ethiopia, and to examine the post-harvest practices and household processing. Liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was used to quantify 23 mycotoxins. The majority of the households regularly consumed maize (more than once per day). More (77%) samples in Sidama were contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol than in Jimma (29%) (P<0.001); Similar distributions of fumonisin B1 (19%), fumonisin B2 (19%) and fumonisin B3 (12%, Sidama vs 13%, Jimma) contamination were observed (P>0.05). In Sidama, only one sample was contaminated with the Aspergillus mycotoxin aflatoxin B2 and another sample with aflatoxin B1. From all samples, 40% were contaminated with 3-5 types of Fusarium mycotoxins and only 4% of the samples were contaminated with 6-8 types of mycotoxins. After the harvested maize was dried on the field, the majority of respondents in Jimma reported that they removed the maize within one day, which was less practiced in Sidama. The majority of households in Sidama, and some in Jimma, reported that they dried maize before storage, mainly using the sun. Close to two third of the study participants in the two zones reported that they applied the chemical dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) during maize storage. All households in both zones reported that they sorted visible mouldy maize grains before preparation of maize flour while most of them kept the mouldy maize for animal feed. Protective strategies of Fusarium mycotoxin contamination, with special focus on deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, should be well promoted in the study areas as they are possible human and animal health threats.

Safety of low and high cost dry feed intended for dogs in Brazil concerning fumonisins, zearalenone and aflatoxins

2017 ◽  
Vol 10 (3) ◽  
pp. 273-283 ◽  
Author(s):  
E.M.K. Teixeira ◽  
M.S. Frehse ◽  
R.L. Freire ◽  
M.A. Ono ◽  
J.G. Bordini ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Low Cost ◽  
Animal Health ◽  
Daily Intake ◽  
Estimated Daily Intake ◽  
Commercial Feed ◽  
Negative Effect ◽  
Contamination Levels ◽  
And Performance ◽  
Aflatoxin B ◽  
Feed Samples

The Brazilian pet sector exportation has been growing at an impressive rate lately. Considering the intense globalisation, pet food may be commercialised worldwide and the issue concerning safety of dry dog feed has become a topic of widespread international interest. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to evaluate the safety of low and high cost dry feed and the degree of exposure of dogs to mycotoxins through naturally contaminated feed in Brazil. In addition, the safe pet dietary level (SPDL) was calculated. Fumonisins, zearalenone (ZEA) and aflatoxins were analysed in three feed types intended for dogs (n=87), provided by pet owners. Mean fumonisin levels were 272 µg/kg (Standard), 78.2 µg/kg (Premium), and 186 µg/kg (Super Premium) while ZEA mean levels were 52.6 µg/kg (Standard), 10.6 µg/kg (Premium) and 17.5 µg/kg (Super Premium). Mean total aflatoxin levels (aflatoxin B1 + B2 + G1 + G2) in Standard, Premium and Super Premium feed were 1.29 µg/kg, 0.49 µg/kg and 0.53 µg/kg, respectively. The estimated daily intake (EDI) values for fumonisin B1 were 1.41 (Standard), 1.60 (Premium) and 0.93 µg/kg body weight (BW)/day (Super Premium feed), whereas for ZEA they were 0.54 (Standard), 0.37 (Premium) and 0.42 µg/kg BW/day (Super Premium feed). SPDL for fumonisins and ZEA was 2,000 and 375 µg/kg feed, respectively. EDI values for aflatoxin B1 were 13.0 (Standard), 14.0 (Premium) and 11.0 ng/kg BW/day (Super Premium feed). Although the feed samples intended for dogs in Brazil were often contaminated with aflatoxins, fumonisins and ZEA, the estimated daily intake values were low, even for the low cost formulations. However, it cannot be excluded that some of the feed samples could have a negative effect on animal health and performance considering feeding a monodiet of commercial feed, low multi-mycotoxin contamination levels and interactions between mycotoxins.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document