Urban Ecology

Ecology ◽  
2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael W. Strohbach ◽  
Boris Schröder
Keyword(s):  
Urban Ecology ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Native Species ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Climate Extremes ◽  
Interdisciplinary Perspective ◽  
Ecological Principles ◽  
Research Opportunity ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S

Humans have become an urban species, but this is a rather recent phenomena. The first cities appeared around six thousand years ago and while their number increased, their population remained relatively small. This changed in the industrial revolution and today cities are home to more than 50 percent of the world’s human population. Considering that most people live in cities and that ecology has been around for more than one hundred years, it seems obvious to have a subdiscipline called urban ecology. Not until the 1960s and 1970s, however, did urban ecology fully emerge and not until the 1990s did it become wildly popular. Most ecologists shunned urban areas, which have traditionally been viewed in opposition to natural, pristine, and wilderness places. It is true enough that water, air, and soil in cities are often polluted, open spaces are scarce and heavily managed, and communities resemble a wild mix of native and non-native species. It took a while until ecologists perceived this not just as a mess, but also as a research opportunity for understanding key ecological principles. Such principles are treated in separate Oxford Bibliographies in Ecology articles “Competition and Coexistence in Animal Communities,” “Metapopulations and Spatial Population Processes,” “Island Biogeography Theory,” “Succession,” and “Invasive Species.” The study of these phenomena is often referred to as ecology in cities. In the 1970s, a broader, interdisciplinary perspective took hold. It is often referred to as ecology of cities and understands urban areas as social-ecological systems. This shift in perspective stemmed from a recognition that people are influencing ecosystems everywhere on earth. In fact, cities are at the heart of many environmental problems and, therefore, they are a good place to look for solutions. Today, urban ecology is a key discipline for an urban planet. The need to adapt cities to climate change, maintain vegetation in the face of climate extremes, balance the need for development with the need for green space, or decrease the negative local-to-global environmental impacts of cities can be achieved without the interdisciplinary perspective urban ecology provides. This article gives an overview of the ever-increasing urban ecology literature. Of course, the list is subjective, reflecting our academic background, professional network, and research interest as well as our language skills. We acknowledge that we may have ignored important publications, published perhaps in a language we cannot read, or we may have focused too much on one topic and too little on another. We ask readers to understand these limitations and we encourage them to help us improve this article in the future.

Industrial archaeology: a thematic or a period discipline?

Antiquity ◽  
1990 ◽  
Vol 64 (243) ◽  
pp. 275-282 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marilyn Palmer
Keyword(s):  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
Historical Period ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Industrial Archaeology ◽  
Part Time ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S ◽  
University Expansion ◽  
Ancient Monument ◽  
The 19Th Century

A thematic or a period discipline?Industrial archaeology has generally been defined as a thematic discipline, concerned with only one aspect of man’s past activity. Although the term ‘archaeology of industry’ was used in the 19th century, it was Michael Rix who used the phrase ‘industrial archaeology’ in print for the first time (Rix 1955). He later defined industrial archaeology as ‘recording, preserving in selected cases and interpreting the sites and structures of early industrial activity, particularly the monuments of the Industrial Revolution’ (Rix 1967: 5). The emphasis on the term ‘industrial monument’ followed a need to define an industrial class of Ancient Monument so that some examples would be scheduled. Industrial archaeology, then, grew from the need to record and preserve standing structures threatened with demolition rather than an inherent desire to understand more about the historical period of the monuments. It was perhaps felt that understanding of the industrial revolution period was more readily arrived at by other means, particularly written historical evidence. During the ‘rescue’ years of the 1960s and 1970s, archaeology was one of the two areas of fastest university expansion and very popular in extra-mural teaching. But none of the archaeology departments took up industrial archaeology, although many of the extra-mural departments did; it is largely as a part-time, amateur interest that industrial archaeology has flourished ever since. The author’s post as an industrial archaeologist in the Leicester archaeology department is one of the first occasions on which the specialism has been given a place in full-time undergraduate archaeology courses.

Application Service Provision for Intelligent Enterprises

2011 ◽  
pp. 182-187
Author(s):  
Matthew W. Guah ◽  
Wendy L. Currie
Keyword(s):  
Information Systems ◽  
21St Century ◽  
Service Provision ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
The Internet ◽  
Late Nineteenth Century ◽  
Gasoline Engines ◽  
Application Service ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S

Several historical shifts in information systems (IS) involved strategies from a mainframe to a client server, and now to application service provision (ASP) for intelligent enterprises. Just as the steam, electric, and gasoline engines became the driving forces behind the industrial revolution of the early 1900s, so the Internet and high-speed telecommunications infrastructure are making ASP a reality today. The current problem with the ASP model involves redefining success in the business environment of the 21st century. Central to this discussion is the idea of adding value at each stage of the IS life cycle. The challenge for business professionals is to find ways to improve business processes by using Web services. It took mainframe computers a decade or two to become central to most firms. When IBM marketed its first mainframe computer, it estimated that 20 of these machines would fulfil the world’s need for computation! Minicomputers moved into companies and schools a little faster than mainframes, but at considerably less costs. When the first computers were applied to business problems in the 1950s, there were so few users that they had almost total influence over their systems. That situation changed during the 1960s and 1970s as the number of users grew. During the 1980s the situation became even tighter when a new player entered the picture—the enterprise (McLeord, 1993). In the 21st century, information systems are developed in an enterprise environment (see Diagram 1). Beniger (1986) puts forth a seemingly influential argument that the origin of the information society may be found in the advancing industrialisation of the late nineteenth century. The Internet is simply a global network of networks that has become a necessity in the way people in enterprises access information, communicate with others, and do business in the 21st century. The initial stage of e-commerce ensured that all large enterprises have computer-to-computer connections with their suppliers via electronic data interchange (EDI), thereby facilitating orders completed by the click of a mouse. Unfortunately, most small companies still cannot afford such direct connections. ASPs ensure access to this service costing little, and usually having a standard PC is sufficient to enter this marketplace. The emergence of the ASP model suggested an answer to prevailing question: Why should small businesses and non-IT organisations spend substantial resources on continuously upgrading their IT? Many scholars believed that outsourcing might be the solution to information needs for 21st century enterprises (Hagel, 2002; Kern, Lacity & Willcocks, 2002; Kakabadse & Kakabadse, 2002). In particular, the emergence of the ASP model provided a viable strategy to surmount the economic obstacles and facilitate various EPR systems adoption (Guah & Currie, 2004). Application service provision— or application service provider—represents a business model of supplying and consuming software-based services over computer networks. An ASP assumes responsibility of buying, hosting, and maintaining a software application on its own facilities; publishes its user interfaces over the networks; and provides its clients with shared access to the published interfaces. The customer only has to subscribe and receive the application services through an Internet or dedicated intranet connection as an alternative to hosting the same application in-house (Guah & Currie, 2004). ASP is an IT-enabled change, a different and recent form of organisational change, evidenced by the specific information systems area (Orlikowski & Tyre, 1994). ASP has its foundations in the organisational behaviour and analysis area (Kern et al., 2002).

The Counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Blake Slonecker
Keyword(s):  
Urban Areas ◽  
Sexual Revolution ◽  
Corporate America ◽  
Popular Imagination ◽  
Acid Rock ◽  
Bay Area ◽  
Aggressive Male ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
Mainstream Society ◽  
The 1960S

In the decade after 1965, radicals responded to the alienating features of America’s technocratic society by developing alternative cultures that emphasized authenticity, individualism, and community. The counterculture emerged from a handful of 1950s bohemian enclaves, most notably the Beat subcultures in the Bay Area and Greenwich Village. But new influences shaped an eclectic and decentralized counterculture after 1965, first in San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district, then in urban areas and college towns, and, by the 1970s, on communes and in myriad counter-institutions. The psychedelic drug cultures around Timothy Leary and Ken Kesey gave rise to a mystical bent in some branches of the counterculture and influenced counterculture style in countless ways: acid rock redefined popular music; tie dye, long hair, repurposed clothes, and hip argot established a new style; and sexual mores loosened. Yet the counterculture’s reactionary elements were strong. In many counterculture communities, gender roles mirrored those of mainstream society, and aggressive male sexuality inhibited feminist spins on the sexual revolution. Entrepreneurs and corporate America refashioned the counterculture aesthetic into a marketable commodity, ignoring the counterculture’s incisive critique of capitalism. Yet the counterculture became the basis of authentic “right livelihoods” for others. Meanwhile, the politics of the counterculture defy ready categorization. The popular imagination often conflates hippies with radical peace activists. But New Leftists frequently excoriated the counterculture for rejecting political engagement in favor of hedonistic escapism or libertarian individualism. Both views miss the most important political aspects of the counterculture, which centered on the embodiment of a decentralized anarchist bent, expressed in the formation of counter-institutions like underground newspapers, urban and rural communes, head shops, and food co-ops. As the counterculture faded after 1975, its legacies became apparent in the redefinition of the American family, the advent of the personal computer, an increasing ecological and culinary consciousness, and the marijuana legalization movement.

Cinema and Television

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
James M. Burns
Keyword(s):  
South Africa ◽  
West Africa ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Satellite Television ◽  
Mobile Phone Technology ◽  
Moving Images ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
Postcolonial Africa ◽  
The 1960S

The history of moving images in Africa dates to the late 19th century, when the first films premiered in South Africa shortly after their world debut in Paris. By 1940 cinema had become a staple of public leisure in urban areas across the continent. In the postwar era cinema’s popularity grew in cities and began to make inroads into rural areas. In the 1930s, colonial administrators started producing didactic films for African consumption. Before the Second World War, the majority of films made for African audiences were produced by administrators in British territories. In the postwar era other colonial governments got involved to varying degrees in the project to educate Africans through film. Films for African education continued to be produced and distributed in the postcolonial era by governments and international aid organizations. The earliest commercial film industry in Africa emerged in South Africa during the silent era. Elsewhere, indigenous production did not begin until the late colonial period. Television came relatively late to Africa, premiering in Nigeria during the waning days of colonial rule and being introduced gradually during the 1960s and 1970s in most nations. The initial reach of television was limited by the poverty of most Africa consumers, and African governments produced few original television programs before 2000. The economic crisis that gripped postcolonial Africa in the 1960s shuttered many urban cinemas and limited television’s reach at a time when it was expanding globally. During this period African artists, frequently with the financial assistance of Western governments, and technical training on both sides of the iron curtain, began producing their own films. A central concern of these pioneering artists was to provide a response to the negative depictions of Africa that were a staple of Western commercial cinema. The distribution of these films was limited on the continent, though many received critical acclaim when shown at film festivals in Europe and North America. In the 1980s audiences in West Africa became consumers of a new genre of moving image, video films, which were produced on limited budgets in urban areas in West Africa. The advent of satellite television services in the 1990s made moving images increasingly accessible to African people across the continent. The end of apartheid in 1990 also proved a fillip to cinema and television production in southern Africa. In the 21st century the availability of visual images has expanded across the continent, as individual ownership of televisions has risen broadly and mobile phone technology has made moving images available to many other consumers.

“Original Environmentalists”

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gregory B. LeDonne
Keyword(s):  
Great Plains ◽  
Natural Resource ◽  
Native Species ◽  
American West ◽  
Environmental Movement ◽  
Natural World ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
Land Use Plan ◽  
The 1960S ◽  
Central Belief

Scholars and the broader public have commonly viewed ranchers in the American West as part of the “environmental opposition,” a group of natural resource, or extractive, industries that opposed the modern environmental movement that developed during the 1960s and 1970s. Yet ranching differed from other natural resource industries in ranchers’ relationship with the environment and in the development of ranchers’ own form of environmentalism. This rancher environmentalism emphasized the conservation and wise use of the environment but was more complex and nuanced than observers typically recognized and did not view ranchers’ relationship with the natural world as merely transactional. Their environmentalism encompassed an appreciation for the sublime and sentimental feelings toward the land as well as the central belief that humans were a fundamental, necessary part of nature. Ranchers’ disagreements with traditional environmentalists largely resulted from those environmentalists’ emphasis on the preservation of the environment rather than maintaining a role for people in nature. This study uses the rewilding movement and the buffalo commons as examples to illustrate ranchers’ environmental beliefs. Rancher environmentalism led ranchers to contest the rewilding movement that evolved in the 1990s due to its association with radical environmentalists and its goal of recreating wilderness without humans. Their antagonism extended to the idea of the buffalo commons, a proposal to return bison and other native species to the Great Plains, and the real-world attempts to establish such an expanse. Ranchers did not support the buffalo commons because they equated it with rewilding and viewed it as calling for their removal. This opposition persisted despite the proposal’s origins as a land-use plan open to maintaining a place for humans on the Great Plains.

“A Permitted Haven in a Heartless World: Colleges and Churches in South Korea in the 1950s”

2017 ◽  
Vol 24 (2-3) ◽  
pp. 209-232
Author(s):  
Dong-Choon Kim
Keyword(s):  
South Korea ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Educational Achievement ◽  
Protestant Churches ◽  
The Korean War ◽  
Primary Means ◽  
The 1950S ◽  
The Republic ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S

In the 1950s, Christianity and educational achievement were the primary means for Koreans to break through the misery and powerlessness that the conflict from June 1950 to July 1953 had caused. Along with education, religion was a promising route in securing familial welfare for South Koreans. Among the several religions and denominations, Protestant churches were more popular for the uprooted people residing in urban areas. These two privately motivated daily activities—education and religion—captured the concern of the Korean people who had lost everything during the war. Under President Syngman Rhee’s “police state” and infrastructural ruin, religious and educational institutions filled the vacuum in the Republic of Korea that the Korean War had left in civil society. The Korean “habitus” of family promotion in the 1950s foretold the fast economic growth of the 1960s and 1970s. This paper will show how South Korea, during that decade, witnessed the formation of a new familialism, which tended to focus on the family’s fortune and money as a final goal. Ethical understandings and political decisions were secondary to the main priority of family promotion.

Spatiotemporal Models of Ethnic Segregation and Their Implications for Housing Policy

1981 ◽  
Vol 13 (11) ◽  
pp. 1415-1433 ◽  
Author(s):  
R I Woods
Keyword(s):  
Ethnic Groups ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Local Authority ◽  
Spatial Diffusion ◽  
Ethnic Segregation ◽  
Housing Policies ◽  
General Evaluation ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S ◽  
Spatiotemporal Models

A number of models have been developed to simulate the changing segregation of ethnic groups in urban areas. Of these the ‘tipping point’ and ‘spatial diffusion’ models have been the most widely employed. This discussion presents a general evaluation of the effectiveness of such models and outlines an attempt to simulate changing segregation patterns by combining in-migration, diffusion, and housing structure elements. The simulation is tested with data for Birmingham, England, in the 1960s and 1970s. The general implications of the model for future government and local authority housing policies toward ethnic groups are also considered.

Politics, Violence, and Drugs

2006 ◽  
Author(s):  
Colin Clarke
Keyword(s):  
Interpersonal Violence ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Urban Violence ◽  
Marginal Population ◽  
Post Colonial ◽  
Political Patronage ◽  
Drug Cartels ◽  
Drug Violence ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S

A survey of the frequency and seriousness of violence in Jamaica, focusing on the urban areas, has recently been carried out by Moser and Holland (1997). ‘While signiWcant distinctions occurred between communities, as well as between diVerent focus groups within communities, overall the groups ranked gang and gun violence as the most serious forms of violence, followed by rape and drug violence. Other interpersonal violence was the least serious, although it was the most prevalent type of violence in the communities (Moser and Holland 1997: 22). These conclusions, according to which people rank infrequent outbreaks of gun, gang, rape, and drug violence ahead of all other more common forms of urban violence in terms of their signiWcance is explained by the murder data. Between 1999 and 2001, there were more than 2,760 murders in Jamaica, and homicide rates in the vicinity of 40 murders per 100,000 inhabitants have placed Jamaica near the top of the list of countries with the highest incidence in the world. Yet in recent years the police have attributed only just over 10 per cent of murders to drug and gangland-related activity, the most prevalent categories of murder being related to robbery (25 per cent), domestic violence (32 per cent), and reprisal killings (33 per cent) (Headley 2002). Why has violence associated with guns, gangs, and drugs become so feared? Why has Jamaican politics, often held up as a shining example of post-colonial two-party democracy, been implicated in the development of gangs and guns? How did drugs enter the urban scene in Kingston, and how did Kingston, a Caribbean backwater in terms of global capitalism, become the nexus for international drug cartels? This chapter examines the link between post-colonial political patronage and violence in the context of the Kingston ghetto, home to the city’s most marginal population. It traces the development of key ghetto constituencies into garrison communities in the 1960s and 1970s; and explores the link between politics, gangs, and the development of the trade in ganja (marijuana).

scholarly journals Migration and Development in Pakistan: Some Selected Issues

1986 ◽  
Vol 25 (4) ◽  
pp. 743-755 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mohammad Irfan
Keyword(s):  
Income Distribution ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Industrial Sector ◽  
Economic Transformation ◽  
Economic Progress ◽  
Primary Goods ◽  
Growth Promoting ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S ◽  
Migration And Development

Economic progress entails various shifts in resource allocations. A progressive deployment of factors of production from the primary-goods-producing sector to secondary and tertiary sectors is regarded as a vital concomitant of economic transformation. This inter-sectoral transfer of resources, both human and capital, very often involves geographic transfer because of imbalances which manifest themselves u shortages or surpluses. Viewed in this context, migration performs a useful role by transferring excess labour from the agricultural (rural) to the modem industrial sector in urban areas. In fact, a vast amount of literature, under the rubric of the 'labour Surplus' models, has evolved, especially during the 1950s, in which migration is seen as an equilibrating and growth-promoting mechanism leading to reductions in wage differentials, equitable income distribution and elimination of surpluses and shortages. Evidence accumulated during the 1960s and 1970s has also shown that migration could lead to worsening geographic and socio-economic in~ ties. This has led quite a few scholars to characterize migration as a dis-equilibrating rather than an equilibrating mechanism. Not only are the theoretical possibilities Varied, but the empirical evidence is also mixed and inconclusive .

scholarly journals Real vs. Virtual City: Planning Issues in a Discontinuous Urban Area in Budapest’s Inner City

2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (4) ◽  
pp. 150-163
Author(s):  
Melinda Benkő ◽  
Bence Bene ◽  
Ádám Pirity ◽  
Árpád Szabó ◽  
Tamás Egedy
Keyword(s):  
Urban Planning ◽  
Inner City ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
City Planning ◽  
New Technologies ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
Urban Fabric ◽  
Planning Methods ◽  
1960S And 1970S ◽  
The 1960S

<p>The 21st century has brought fundamental changes in the development of cities, with the spread of ICT and the rise of digitalization. The new technologies are increasingly making their mark on urban planning and policy as well. The question of how contemporary urban planning is adapting to new challenges is particularly relevant as neighborhoods built in previous centuries and decades by traditional planning methods are now increasingly confronted with new public and environmental demands. Despite the bad reputation of Budapest’s 8th district, Józsefváros, based on the socio-economic and urban problems it has continuously faced in the past, the neighborhood has become one of the most dynamically developing urban areas in the last decade. From a planning point of view, an exciting area of the district is Szigony Street and its wider surroundings due to the strongly fragmented, heterogeneous urban fabric. Nevertheless, the only high-rise mass housing estate built in Budapest’s historic inner city in the 1960s and 1970s is located there. Our research used a complex methodology (document, content and database analysis, fieldwork, surveys with professionals, and interviews) to explore the planning history of the area’s development. Ultimately, the aim was to identify the most important outcomes and consequences of traditional and contemporary planning and design and whether modern digital planning can make a meaningful contribution to the development of the neighborhood. Our results show that urban planning and development in Budapest are still essentially based on traditional top-down approaches. Digitalization has a role to play primarily in visualization and contextualization but digitalizing of planning alone will not solve problems and past planning mistakes that affect the urban fabric of a neighborhood.</p>

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