The Kingdom of Akkad

Author(s):  
Ingo Schrakamp

This chapter discusses the foundations and inner structure of the kingdom of Akkad. Based mainly on royal inscriptions and archival records, it argues that this state constitutes a decisive phase in Mesopotamian history and discusses a series of political, ideological, socioeconomic, and administrative transformations that it brought about: the implementation of the concept of the territorial state, borne by an autocratic and conquering kingship with absolute claim to power; an administrative centralization directed toward the capital; the introduction of Akkadian as an official language of administration; and the spread of private landownership, concentrated in the hands of the king and administered through large agricultural estates established throughout the state through purchase and confiscation. These transformations were implemented by means of the standing army, whose upkeep was supported by the agricultural land in the hands of the king. Allocations of royally owned land to other parties established a far-flung network of patronage, which included not only members of the royal family, court, administration, and army but also members of the local elites, thus strengthening the king’s power base. The chapter also discusses how the transformations brought about by the kingdom of Akkad were ambiguously reflected in later tradition, which also made this state a model to be emulated by later rulers.

2016 ◽  
Vol 47 ◽  
pp. 449-458 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ziming Liu ◽  
Malte Müller ◽  
Jens Rommel ◽  
Shuyi Feng

2021 ◽  
pp. 002190962110638
Author(s):  
Salman Ata ◽  
Babar Shahbaz ◽  
Muhammad Arif Watto ◽  
Nisar Hussain

Each year, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA), Pakistan issues a special 10-day hunting permit to royal family members of Gulf countries for seasonal hunting of Asian Houbara bustard ( Chlamydotis macqueen). This paper attempts to systematically present the understandings on seasonal land grabbing and its political economy in Pakistan. The role of local elites and government institutions and the response of local people, as well as their resistance, is discussed in detail.


Iraq ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 81 ◽  
pp. 247-268
Author(s):  
Shana Zaia

Šamaš-šuma-ukīn is a unique case in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: he was a member of the Assyrian royal family who was installed as king of Babylonia but never of Assyria. Previous Assyrian rulers who had control over Babylonia were recognized as kings of both polities, but Šamaš-šuma-ukīn's father, Esarhaddon, had decided to split the empire between two of his sons, giving Ashurbanipal kingship over Assyria and Šamaš-šuma-ukīn the throne of Babylonia. As a result, Šamaš-šuma-ukīn is an intriguing case-study for how political, familial, and cultural identities were constructed in texts and interacted with each other as part of royal self-presentation. This paper shows that, despite Šamaš-šuma-ukīn's familial and cultural identity as an Assyrian, he presents himself as a quintessentially Babylonian king to a greater extent than any of his predecessors. To do so successfully, Šamaš-šuma-ukīn uses Babylonian motifs and titles while ignoring the Assyrian tropes his brother Ashurbanipal retains even in his Babylonian royal inscriptions.


2020 ◽  
Vol 22 (1) ◽  
pp. 57-78 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gabriel Antunes Araujo

This paper describes how the Portuguese language came to be widely spoken in the Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe and demonstrates how the spread of Portuguese language can be associated with the endangerment of other languages in the archipelago. A country that has been multilingual since its formation has moved towards monolingualism, marginalizing native languages or pushing them into obsolescence in the process. Based on a literature review, we suggest that the spread of Portuguese and its consolidation as the dominant language are associated with a complex socio-historical process, including urbanization, mass schooling, media and the desire of local elites to remain connected to an imperial language and the benefits of such a connection. The choice of the ruling elite to adopt Portuguese as the official language in the young republic in 1975 effectively created the mechanisms for the diffusion of Portuguese and set the stage for the endangerment of other local languages. 


Classics ◽  
2021 ◽  

The Ostrogothic king Theoderic is the only non-Roman ruler of Late Antiquity to have acquired the epithet the Great, albeit only in modern times. Born around 453 in Pannonia (Hungary) as the son of a Gothic king named Thiudimir, he grew up in Constantinople, where he was held as a hostage for ten years. He returned to Pannonia in 471, in 474 succeeding his father, who had meanwhile led the “Pannonian Goths” into Macedonia. For several years Theoderic fought a Gothic king and rival claimant to imperial favor likewise named Theoderic whose power base was in Thrace (hence “Thracian Goths”). Only after the latter’s death in 481 did he succeed in uniting the two groups under his leadership. Although he was subsequently appointed magister militum and held the consulship in 484, relations with the emperor Zeno soon became hostile. In 488, Theoderic and Zeno made an agreement that Theoderic should take his people to Italy and eliminate Odovacer. After a devastating war, he slew Odovacer by his own hand in March 493, in breach of an oath sworn shortly before to share rule in Italy. Having secured sole rule in Italy, Theoderic turned his mobile and militarized followers into a standing army by allotting them ownership rights to landed estates (rather than shares in land tax, as some have argued). He defined his position as ruler over two peoples, Goths and Romans, to which he assigned complementary but separate roles (“integration by separation”). While Goths were warriors by definition, the civilian population was labeled Roman. Theoderic won over the senatorial elites by preserving their privileges, wealth, and social power and by giving them a share in his rule. He left the administrative structures of the Late Roman state largely unaltered and filled all positions of a civilian nature with people from the senatorial milieu. Although he belonged to a Christian denomination considered heretical by Catholics (“Arian”) he treated Catholic bishops with respect; they in turn asked him to act as an arbitrator when in 498 Symmachus and Laurentius were simultaneously elected to be bishop of Rome. From 508 to 511 he extended his rule over Provence and the Iberian peninsula. Relations with the senatorial elites and the Roman church became strained at the end of Theoderic’s life. He died in Ravenna on 30 August 526 without having nominated an heir to the throne. His kingdom fell within a generation after his death, but his memory lived on in Italy and in all Germanic-speaking lands where legend transformed him into Dietrich of Berne.


2015 ◽  
Vol 9 (3) ◽  
pp. 37
Author(s):  
Eric Léonard

Resumen:Este artículo examina los procesos de cambio institucional endógeno que ocurrieron en los ejidos de Los Tuxtlas, una región indígena del sur del estado de Veracruz, en México, en las décadas de 1950 a 1980. Estos cambios en las reglas de acceso y uso de las tierras ocurrieron a raíz de conflictos internos a las comunidades campesinas que tenían por motivo común los acaparamientos de recursos naturales (tierras de cultivo, pastizales y maderas) realizados por grupos de actores locales, con la anuencia del aparato politico-sindical oficial. Estos conflictos se expresaron en reivindicaciones de “parcelamiento” –es decir de redistribución de la tierra en una base igualitaria– que formularon varios comités agrarios locales, a las que se opusieron los intermediarios político-comerciales locales aliados a la población sin derecho formal a las tierras de reparto agrario. Fue hasta fines de los años setenta, en un contexto de fuerte intervención estatal en los ámbitos productivo y comercial, cuando un cambio generacional dentro de la dirección del comité y a nivel de los ejidos, abrió la puerta a la realización de los parcelamientos en varias comunidades. El estudio de caso presenta la cuestión de los acaparamientos de recursos dentro de las comunidades campesinas, no como un fenómeno novedoso y relacionado con las dinámicas contemporáneas de mercantilización y globalización, sino como procedente, también, de lógicas y dinámicas de diferenciación internas a dichas comunidades.Palabras claves: reforma agraria; ejido; cambio institucional; conflictos; normas locales; pluralismo legal***Summary:This paper deals with the issue of endogenous institutionnal change, examining social and legal processes which occured in the mexican ejidos of the Tuxtla region, in the South of Veracruz state, betweeen the decades of 1950 and 1980. These changes regarding the rules of access to and use of land occured as the output of internal conflicts, which had as common origin the seizure of natural resources (agricultural lands, pastures, woods) by local elites backed by the oficial state-sponsored peasant union. These conflicts mostly expressed through claims for the “parcelamiento” –the redistribution of the land on a egalitarian basis among the ejidatarios who benefited from the agrarian reform. The parcelamiento claims, backed by some local executive committees, were fiercely fought by local elites who allied with the peasants whithout official rights to ejido land. It was only by the end of the 1970s, when massive state intervention in the supply of agricultural credits and alternative ways of commercialization had weaken the traditional structures of local power, and a generational change had induced a a renewal of ejido executive committees, that a redistribution of land occurred in several communities. The paper examines the issue of agricultural land encroachments, not as a recent process, related to the dynamics of comoditization and globalization of natural resources, but rather as the product of internal logics and dynamics of differentiation among those communities.Key-words: Agrarian reform; ejido; institutional change; conflicts; local norms; legal pluralism ***Resumo:Este artigo examina os processos de mudança institucional endógena que ocorreram nos ejidos dos Tuxtlas, uma região indígena do sul do estado de Veracruz, no México, nas décadas de 1950 a 1980. Estas mudanças nas regras de acesso e uso das terras ocorreram causadas por conflitos internos às comunidades campesinas que tinham por motivo comum os monopólios de recursos naturais (terras de cultivo, pastarias e madeiras) realizados por grupos de atores locais, com o apoio do aparato político-sindical oficial. Estes conflitos se expressaram em reivindicações de “parcelamento” – redistribuição  da terra em uma base igualitária– que formularam vários comitês agrários locais, aos quais  os intermediários político-comerciais locais aliados à população sem direito formal as terras de divisão agraria se opuseram. Foi no fim dos anos setenta, em um contexto de forte intervenção estatal nos âmbitos produtivo e comercial, quando uma mudança geracional dentro da direção do comitê e a nível dos ejidos, abriu a porta para  a realização dos parcelamentos em várias comunidades. O estudo de caso apresenta a questão dos monopólios de recursos dentro das comunidades campesinas, não como um fenómeno novo e relacionado com as dinâmicas contemporâneas de mercantilização e globalização, mas sim  como procedente, também, de lógicas e dinâmicas de diferenciação internas destas comunidades.Palavras-chaves: Reforma agrária; ejido; mudança institucional; conflitos; normas locais; pluralismo legal. 


2000 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 28-33 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Afzalur Rahim ◽  
David Antonioni ◽  
Krum Krumov ◽  
Snejana Ilieva

This study investigated the relationships of bases of leader power (coercive, reward, legitimate, expert, and referent) and styles of handling interpersonal conflict (integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding, and compromising) to subordinates' effectiveness. Data for this study were collected with questionnaires from the United States and Bulgaria and analyzed with hierarchical regression analysis for each country. Results indicated that in the United States referent power base of supervisors and integrating style of handling conflict of subordinates were positively associated with effectiveness. In Bulgaria, legitimate power base of supervisors was positively associated with effectiveness, but the subordinates' conflict styles were not associated with effectiveness.


Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document