scholarly journals Naive, captive long-tailed macaques ( Macaca fascicularis fascicularis ) fail to individually and socially learn pound-hammering, a tool-use behaviour

2018 ◽  
Vol 5 (5) ◽  
pp. 171826 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elisa Bandini ◽  
Claudio Tennie
Keyword(s):  
Social Learning ◽  
Tool Use ◽  
Macaca Fascicularis ◽  
Social Information ◽  
Stone Tools ◽  
Individual Learning ◽  
Specific Technique ◽  
Learning Conditions ◽  
The Individual

A subspecies of long-tailed macaques ( Macaca fascicularis aurea; Mfa ) has been reported to use stone tools and a specific technique to process nuts in Southeast Asia, a behaviour known as ‘pound-hammering’. The aim of this study was to examine the development of pound-hammering in long-tailed macaques: whether this behavioural form can be individually learnt or whether it has to rely on some forms of social learning. Given the absence of Mfa from captivity, long-tailed macaques of a highly related subspecies ( Macaca fascicularis fascicularis; Mff ) were experimentally tested by providing them with the ecological materials necessary to show pound-hammering. A baseline was first carried out to observe whether pound-hammering would emerge spontaneously without social information. As this was not the case, different degrees of social information, culminating in a full demonstration of the behaviour, were provided. None of the subjects ( n  = 31) showed pound-hammering in any of the individual or social learning conditions. Although these data do not support the hypothesis that individual learning underlies this behaviour, no evidence was found that (at least) Mff learn pound-hammering socially either. We propose that other—potentially interacting—factors may determine whether this behaviour emerges in the various subspecies of long-tailed macaques, and provide a novel methodology to test the role of social and individual learning in the development of animal tool-use.

scholarly journals Exploring the role of individual learning in animal tool-use

PeerJ ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. e9877 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elisa Bandini ◽  
Claudio Tennie
Keyword(s):  
Social Learning ◽  
Tool Use ◽  
Animal Species ◽  
Experimental Studies ◽  
Individual Learning ◽  
The Other ◽  
Learning Approach ◽  
Learning Mechanisms ◽  
The Individual

The notion that tool-use is unique to humans has long been refuted by the growing number of observations of animals using tools across various contexts. Yet, the mechanisms behind the emergence and sustenance of these tool-use repertoires are still heavily debated. We argue that the current animal behaviour literature is biased towards a social learning approach, in which animal, and in particular primate, tool-use repertoires are thought to require social learning mechanisms (copying variants of social learning are most often invoked). However, concrete evidence for a widespread dependency on social learning is still lacking. On the other hand, a growing body of observational and experimental data demonstrates that various animal species are capable of acquiring the forms of their tool-use behaviours via individual learning, with (non-copying) social learning regulating the frequencies of the behavioural forms within (and, indirectly, between) groups. As a first outline of the extent of the role of individual learning in animal tool-use, a literature review of reports of the spontaneous acquisition of animal tool-use behaviours was carried out across observational and experimental studies. The results of this review suggest that perhaps due to the pervasive focus on social learning in the literature, accounts of the individual learning of tool-use forms by naïve animals may have been largely overlooked, and their importance under-examined.

scholarly journals Testing the individual and social learning abilities of task-naïve captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes sp.) in a nut-cracking task

PeerJ ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. e8734 ◽  
Author(s):  
Damien Neadle ◽  
Elisa Bandini ◽  
Claudio Tennie
Keyword(s):  
Social Learning ◽  
Individual Learning ◽  
Conclusive Evidence ◽  
Baseline Condition ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Learning Mechanisms ◽  
Learning Abilities ◽  
Nut Cracking ◽  
The Individual

Nut-cracking is often cited as one of the most complex behaviours observed in wild chimpanzees. However, the cognitive mechanisms behind its acquisition are still debated. The current null hypothesis is that the form of nut-cracking behaviour relies on variants of social learning, with some researchers arguing, more precisely, that copying variants of social learning mechanisms are necessary. However, to date, very few experiments have directly investigated the potentially sufficient role of individual learning in explaining the behavioural form of nut-cracking. Despite this, the available data provides some evidence for the spontaneous acquisition of nut-cracking by chimpanzees; later group acquisition was then found to be at least facilitated by (unspecified) variants of social learning. The latter findings are in line with both suggested hypotheses, i.e., that copying social learning is required and that other (non-copying) social learning mechanisms are at play. Here we present the first study which focused (initially) on the role of individual learning for the acquisition of the nut-cracking behavioural form in chimpanzees. We tested task-naïve chimpanzees (N = 13) with an extended baseline condition to examine whether the behaviour would emerge spontaneously. After the baseline condition (which was unsuccessful), we tested for the role of social learning by providing social information in a step-wise fashion, culminating in a full action demonstration of nut-cracking by a human demonstrator (this last condition made it possible for the observers to copy all actions underlying the behaviour). Despite the opportunities to individually and/or socially learn nut-cracking, none of the chimpanzees tested here cracked nuts using tools in any of the conditions in our study; thus, providing no conclusive evidence for either competing hypothesis. We conclude that this failure was the product of an interplay of factors, including behavioural conservatism and the existence of a potential sensitive learning period for nut-cracking in chimpanzees. The possibility remains that nut-cracking is a behaviour that chimpanzees can individually learn. However, this behaviour might only be acquired when chimpanzees are still inside their sensitive learning period, and when ecological and developmental conditions allow for it. The possibility remains that nut-cracking is an example of a culture dependent trait in non-human great apes. Recommendations for future research projects to address this question are considered.

scholarly journals Social learning and networks in Nestor parrots

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Daniel Donoghue
Keyword(s):  
Social Network ◽  
Social Learning ◽  
Tool Use ◽  
Social Information ◽  
Habitat Modification ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Video Playback ◽  
Food Aversion ◽  
Network Analyses ◽  
The Social

<p>Social learning and network analyses are theorised to be of great utility in the context of behavioural conservation. For example, harnessing a species’ capacity for social learning may allow researchers to seed useful information into populations, while network analyses could provide a useful tool to monitor community stability, and predict pathways of pathogen transfer. Thus, an understanding of how individuals learn and the nature of the social networks within a population could enable the development of new behavioural based conservation interventions for species facing rapid environmental change, such as human-induced habitat modification. Parrots, the most threatened avian order worldwide, are notably underrepresented in the social learning and social network literature. This thesis addresses this knowledge gap by exploring social learning and networks using two endangered species of parrot; kākā (Nestor meridionalis) and kea (Nestor notabilis). The first study explores social learning of tool use in captive kea, using a trained kea demonstrator. The results from this experiment indicate that both social learning and play behaviour facilitated the uptake of tool use, and suggests that kea are highly sensitive to social information even when presented with complex tasks. The second study assesses whether wild kākā can socially learn novel string-pulling and food aversion behaviours from video playbacks of conspecific demonstrators. Although there was no evidence to indicate that kākā learn socially, these individuals also show no notable reaction to video playback of a familiar predator. Therefore, these results are likely due to difficulties in interpreting information on the screens, and not necessarily a reflection of their ability to perceive social information. In the final study, social network analysis (SNA) was performed to map social connectivity within wellington’s urban kākā population. SNA indicates that kākā form non-random social bonds, selectively associating with some individuals more than others, and also show high levels of dissimilarity in community composition at different feeding sites. Taken together, these results provide rare empirical evidence of social learning in a parrot species and suggest that even complicated seeded behaviours can quickly spread to other individuals. These findings may also be indicative of the difficulties in conducting video playback experiments in wild conditions, which is an area in need of future research. Overall, these findings contribute to the very limited body of research on social learning and networks in parrots, and provide information of potential value in the management of these species.</p>

scholarly journals Social learning and networks in Nestor parrots

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Donoghue
Keyword(s):  
Social Network ◽  
Social Learning ◽  
Tool Use ◽  
Social Information ◽  
Habitat Modification ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Video Playback ◽  
Food Aversion ◽  
Network Analyses ◽  
The Social

<p>Social learning and network analyses are theorised to be of great utility in the context of behavioural conservation. For example, harnessing a species’ capacity for social learning may allow researchers to seed useful information into populations, while network analyses could provide a useful tool to monitor community stability, and predict pathways of pathogen transfer. Thus, an understanding of how individuals learn and the nature of the social networks within a population could enable the development of new behavioural based conservation interventions for species facing rapid environmental change, such as human-induced habitat modification. Parrots, the most threatened avian order worldwide, are notably underrepresented in the social learning and social network literature. This thesis addresses this knowledge gap by exploring social learning and networks using two endangered species of parrot; kākā (Nestor meridionalis) and kea (Nestor notabilis). The first study explores social learning of tool use in captive kea, using a trained kea demonstrator. The results from this experiment indicate that both social learning and play behaviour facilitated the uptake of tool use, and suggests that kea are highly sensitive to social information even when presented with complex tasks. The second study assesses whether wild kākā can socially learn novel string-pulling and food aversion behaviours from video playbacks of conspecific demonstrators. Although there was no evidence to indicate that kākā learn socially, these individuals also show no notable reaction to video playback of a familiar predator. Therefore, these results are likely due to difficulties in interpreting information on the screens, and not necessarily a reflection of their ability to perceive social information. In the final study, social network analysis (SNA) was performed to map social connectivity within wellington’s urban kākā population. SNA indicates that kākā form non-random social bonds, selectively associating with some individuals more than others, and also show high levels of dissimilarity in community composition at different feeding sites. Taken together, these results provide rare empirical evidence of social learning in a parrot species and suggest that even complicated seeded behaviours can quickly spread to other individuals. These findings may also be indicative of the difficulties in conducting video playback experiments in wild conditions, which is an area in need of future research. Overall, these findings contribute to the very limited body of research on social learning and networks in parrots, and provide information of potential value in the management of these species.</p>

Transformation of Individual Learning through Informatics and Information Technology Activities in Primary School

2013 ◽  
pp. 42-54
Author(s):  
Valentina Dagiene ◽  
Vaiva Grabauskiene
Keyword(s):  
Information Technology ◽  
Content Analysis ◽  
Learning Environment ◽  
Primary School ◽  
Individual Learning ◽  
Fundamental Point ◽  
Learning Conditions ◽  
Basic Concepts ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Information Technology Impact

The topic of the individual learning conditions creation can be analysed from the technological as well as pedagogical side. In both cases there is the same fundamental point: how to create valuable and as much as possible natural learning environment? The experience in the application of technologies for personalisation, analysed in scientific literature, reveals newer possibilities for the individual activities support. This encourages taking a different route in analysing individual learning – to interdisciplinary combine the content of close concepts. The paper deals with basic concepts of interdisciplinary content analysis – informatics and information technology impact to an individual learning in primary school.

Understanding Individual Learning for Organizational Learning

1996 ◽  
Vol 40 (15) ◽  
pp. 791-795
Author(s):  
Rajendra Paul
Keyword(s):  
Organizational Learning ◽  
Cognitive Learning ◽  
Individual Learning ◽  
Learning Processes ◽  
Abstract Concept ◽  
Feedback Environment ◽  
Extrinsic Factors ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Intrinsic And Extrinsic Factors

Suitable application of the knowledge about individual learning to develop organizational learning processes is the focus and scope of this paper. Organization is an abstract concept. Consequently, organizational learning depends to a large extent on the learning by individual employees. Cognitive learning is treated in greater detail than physical learning, although the two often occur and are treated simultaneously. The attributes of the individual learning process discussed here include intrinsic and extrinsic factors like motivation, feedback, environment, social influences, and role of emotions.

scholarly journals Young children spontaneously invent wild great apes’ tool-use behaviours

2016 ◽  
Vol 283 (1825) ◽  
pp. 20152402 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. Reindl ◽  
S. R. Beck ◽  
I. A. Apperly ◽  
C. Tennie
Keyword(s):  
Social Learning ◽  
Tool Use ◽  
Great Apes ◽  
Cultural Knowledge ◽  
Great Ape ◽  
Great Similarity ◽  
Physical Cognition ◽  
Animal Kingdom ◽  
Over Time

The variety and complexity of human-made tools are unique in the animal kingdom. Research investigating why human tool use is special has focused on the role of social learning: while non-human great apes acquire tool-use behaviours mostly by individual (re-)inventions, modern humans use imitation and teaching to accumulate innovations over time. However, little is known about tool-use behaviours that humans can invent individually, i.e. without cultural knowledge. We presented 2- to 3.5-year-old children with 12 problem-solving tasks based on tool-use behaviours shown by great apes. Spontaneous tool use was observed in 11 tasks. Additionally, tasks which occurred more frequently in wild great apes were also solved more frequently by human children. Our results demonstrate great similarity in the spontaneous tool-use abilities of human children and great apes, indicating that the physical cognition underlying tool use shows large overlaps across the great ape species. This suggests that humans are neither born with special physical cognition skills, nor that these skills have degraded due to our species’ long reliance of social learning in the tool-use domain.

NEW LEARNING STRATEGIES IN BUSTILLOS AND OLIVEIRA MODEL

2006 ◽  
Vol 17 (10) ◽  
pp. 1415-1427
Author(s):  
MINGFENG HE ◽  
XIAOWEN PAN ◽  
XIAOJIA MU ◽  
LIN FENG
Keyword(s):  
Social Learning ◽  
Learning Strategies ◽  
Learning Strategy ◽  
Individual Learning ◽  
Learning Ability ◽  
Learning Capacity ◽  
New Learning ◽  
Penna Model ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Dependent Learning

Armando Ticona Bustillos and Paulo Murilo C. de Oliveira first combined learning strategy with Penna model using a third bit string to represent knowledge. There are two forms of learning strategy in their model: individual learning through trial-and-error and social learning through copying knowledge from others. Based on the Bustillos-Oliveira model, we propose a new learning strategy:. (1) Individual learning ability depending on knowledge, through which the individual learning ability is not a constant but in direct proportion to the knowledge level of individual;. (2) Double-direction Social learning, under this, not only the young can learn from the elder, but also the elder can learn from the young;. (3) The age-dependent learning capacity, we make the learning capacity a variable in inverse proportion to the age, unlike which has been represented in Bustillos and Oliveira's model as a constant. Under this new learning strategy represented above, we get different result in the level of knowledge of individuals from B-O model.

The effect of demonstrator reward on social learning of operant key pecking by domestic hens

2001 ◽  
Vol 2001 ◽  
pp. OC2-OC2
Author(s):  
C.M. Sherwin ◽  
C.M. Heyes ◽  
C. Leeb ◽  
C.J. Nicol
Keyword(s):  
Social Interaction ◽  
Social Learning ◽  
Tool Use ◽  
Cognitive Abilities ◽  
Food Preferences ◽  
Naive Animal ◽  
Key Pecking ◽  
Maladaptive Behaviours ◽  
Novel Behaviour

Social learning is said to occur when social interaction facilitates the acquisition of a novel pattern of behaviour. It usually takes the form of an experienced animal (the demonstrator) performing a behaviour such that a naive animal (the observer) subsequently expresses the same novel behaviour, earlier or more completely than it would have done using individual learning. Social learning is involved in the transmission of a great variety of behaviours, e.g. tool-use, food preferences, and has also been implicated in maladaptive behaviours such as stereotypies in voles. In studies of social learning, the observers usually see the demonstrators receive a reward for performing the required behaviour. But, the role of the reward has rarely been investigated and results have been equivocal. Understanding the role of demonstrator reward on social learning is necessary to assess the cognitive abilities of individuals of different species, and aids understanding of the transmission of maladaptive behaviours.

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