Building an Equilibrium: Rules vs. Principles in Relational Contracts

Effective collaboration within and between organizations requires efficient adaptation to unforeseen change. We study how parties build relational contracts that achieve this goal. We focus on the “clarity problem”—whether parties have a shared understanding of the promises they make to each other. Specifically, (a) a buyer and seller play a trading game in several periods; (b) they know their environment will change but do not know how; and (c) before any trading occurs, they can reach a nonbinding agreement about how to play the entire game. We hypothesize that pairs whose initial agreement defines a broad principle rather than a narrow rule are more successful in solving the clarity problem and in achieving efficient adaptation after unforeseen change. In our baseline condition, we indeed observe that pairs who articulate principles achieve significantly higher performance after change occurred. Underlying this correlation, we also find that pairs with principle-based agreements were more likely to both expect and take actions that were consistent with what their agreement prescribed. To investigate a causal link between principle-based agreements and performance, we implement a “nudge” intervention that induces more pairs to articulate principles. The intervention succeeds in coordinating more pairs on efficient quality immediately after the unforeseen change, but it fails to coordinate expectations on price, ultimately leading to conflicts and preventing an increase in long-run performance after the shock. Our results suggest that (1) principle-based agreements may improve organizational performance but (2) high-performing relational contracts may be difficult to build.

Towards Balancing VR Immersion and Bystander Awareness

Head-mounted displays (HMDs) increase immersion into virtual worlds. The problem is that this limits headset users' awareness of bystanders: headset users cannot attend to bystanders' presence and activities. We call this the HMD boundary. We explore how to make the HMD boundary permeable by comparing different ways of providing informal awareness cues to the headset user about bystanders. We adapted and implemented three visualization techniques (Avatar View, Radar and Presence++) that share bystanders' location and orientation with headset users. We conducted a hybrid user and simulation study with three different types of VR content (high, medium, low interactivity) with twenty participants to compare how these visualization techniques allow people to maintain an awareness of bystanders, and how they affect immersion (compared to a baseline condition). Our study reveals that a see-through avatar representation of bystanders was effective, but led to slightly reduced immersion in the VR content. Based on our findings, we discuss how future awareness visualization techniques can be designed to mitigate the reduction of immersion for the headset user.

A new fMRI localizer for preoperative language mapping using a sentence completion task: Validity, choice of baseline condition, and test-retest reliability

To avoid post-neurosurgical language deficits, intraoperative mapping of the language function in the brain can be complemented with preoperative mapping with fMRI. The validity of an fMRI language localizer paradigm crucially depends on the choice of an optimal language task and baseline condition. This study presents a new fMRI language localizer in Russian using overt sentence completion, a task that comprehensively engages the language function by involving both production and comprehension at the word and sentence level. The paradigm was validated in 18 neurologically healthy volunteers who participated in two scanning sessions, for estimating test-retest reliability. For the first time, two baseline conditions for the sentence completion task were compared. At the group level, the paradigm significantly activated both anterior and posterior language-related regions. Individual-level analysis showed that activation was elicited most consistently in the inferior frontal regions, followed by posterior temporal regions and the angular gyrus. Test-retest reliability of activation location, as measured by Dice coefficients, was moderate and thus comparable to previous studies. Test-retest reliability was higher in the frontal than temporo-parietal region and with the most liberal statistical thresholding compared to two more conservative thresholding methods. Lateralization indices were expectedly left-hemispheric, with greater lateralization in the frontal than temporo-parietal region, and showed moderate test-retest reliability. Finally, the pseudoword baseline elicited more extensive and more reliable activation, although the syllable baseline appears more feasible for future clinical use. Overall, the study demonstrated the validity and reliability of the sentence completion task for mapping the language function in the brain. The paradigm needs further validation in a clinical sample of neurosurgical patients. Additionally, the study contributes to general evidence on test-retest reliability of fMRI.

Persuading Republicans and Democrats to Comply with Mask Wearing: An Intervention Tournament

Many people practiced COVID-19-related safety measures in the first year of the pandemic, but Republicans were less likely to engage in behaviors such as wearing masks or face coverings than Democrats, suggesting radical disparities in health practices split along political fault lines. We developed an “intervention tournament” which aimed to identify the framings that would promote mask wearing among a representative sample of Republicans and Democrats in the U.S. (N = 4,931). Seven different conditions reflecting different moral values and factors specific to COVID-19—including protection from harm (self), protection from harm (community), patriotic duty, purity, reviving the economy, threat, and scientific evidence—were implemented to identify which framings would “win” in terms of promoting mask wearing compared to a baseline condition. We found that Republicans had significantly more negative attitudes toward masks, lower intentions to wear them, and were less likely to sign or share pledges on social media than Democrats, which was partially mediated by Republicans, compared to Democrats, perceiving that the threat of COVID-19 was lower. None of our framing conditions significantly affected Republicans’ or Democrats’ attitudes, intentions, or behaviors compared to the baseline condition, illustrating the difficulty in overcoming the strength of political polarization during COVID-19.

The Effect of Baseline on Toddler Event-Related Mu-Rhythm Modulation

Event-related mu-rhythm activity has become a common tool for the investigation of different socio-cognitive processes in pediatric populations. The estimation of the mu-rhythm desynchronization/synchronization (mu-ERD/ERS) in a specific task is usually computed in relation to a baseline condition. In the present study, we investigated the effect that different types of baseline might have on toddler mu-ERD/ERS related to an action observation (AO) and action execution (AE) task. Specifically, we compared mu-ERD/ERS values computed using as a baseline: (1) the observation of a static image (BL1) and (2) a period of stillness (BL2). Our results showed that the majority of the subjects suppressed the mu-rhythm in response to the task and presented a greater mu-ERD for one of the two baselines. In some cases, one of the two baselines was not even able to produce a significant mu-ERD, and the preferred baseline varied among subjects even if most of them were more sensitive to the BL1, thus suggesting that this could be a good baseline to elicit mu-rhythm modulations in toddlers. These results recommended some considerations for the design and analysis of mu-rhythm studies involving pediatric subjects: in particular, the importance of verifying the mu-rhythm activity during baseline, the relevance of single-subject analysis, the possibility of including more than one baseline condition, and caution in the choice of the baseline and in the interpretation of the results of studies investigating mu-rhythm activity in pediatric populations.

Visual recognition of words learned with gestures induces motor resonance in the forearm muscles

According to theories of Embodied Cognition, memory for words is related to sensorimotor experiences collected during learning. At a neural level, words encoded with self-performed gestures are represented in distributed sensorimotor networks that resonate during word recognition. Here, we ask whether muscles involved in gesture execution also resonate during word recognition. Native German speakers encoded words by reading them (baseline condition) or by reading them in tandem with picture observation, gesture observation, or gesture observation and execution. Surface electromyogram (EMG) activity from both arms was recorded during the word recognition task and responses were detected using eye-tracking. The recognition of words encoded with self-performed gestures coincided with an increase in arm muscle EMG activity compared to the recognition of words learned under other conditions. This finding suggests that sensorimotor networks resonate into the periphery and provides new evidence for a strongly embodied view of recognition memory.

Performance Assessment Through Motion Literation to Assess The Motoric Skill of Junior High School Students Based on Laban Notation

Motor skills integrate physical functions and coordination between the brain as a center for information and control through visual activities (reading) and tactile (writing) movement symbols. Symbols and motion codes are found in labanotation, so the ability to read symbols and write symbol patterns is called motion literacy. It can be done through continuous assessment continuously in an effort to diagnose their abilities. The results of the study describe a change in the condition of students’ motor skills after intervention through labanotation-based motion literacy work assessment, namely the change in conditions from the intervention condition (B) to the final baseline condition (A’) decreases the students’ adaptability. However, at the final baseline condition (A’), the motor ability score improved better than in the phase before baseline (A). The total average score obtained in this condition was 62.86%. Thus it can be concluded that the effect of performance appraisal through motion literacy provides benefits for improving brain function because structured and programmed motion exercises are useful in stimulating various learning centers in the brain. This also impacts on improving motor skills in students to undergo the learning process at a later stage.

Using psychophysiological measures to assess learners’ cognitive and affective states in a theory-based gamified MOOC

Η τρέχουσα βιβλιογραφία για τα Μαζικά Ανοικτά Διαδικτυακά Μαθήματα (Massive Open Online Courses-MOOCs) εστιάζει στην υιοθέτηση τεχνικών παιχνιδοποίησης (gamification) για την αντιμετώπιση του υψηλού ποσοστού εκπαιδευόμενων που εγκαταλείπουν το μάθημα πριν αυτό ολοκληρωθεί (dropout). Η χρήση της παιχνιδοποίησης, στο πλαίσιο των MOOCs, στοχεύει κυρίως στην ενίσχυση της εμπλοκής (engagement) των εκπαιδευόμενων στο μάθημα. Σε αυτήν την κατεύθυνση, τα αποτελέσματα πρόσφατων βιβλιογραφικών επισκοπήσεων αναδεικνύουν την ανάγκη να προχωρήσουμε πέρα από την απλή εφαρμογή στοιχείων παιχνιδιού στα ψηφιακά εκπαιδευτικά περιβάλλοντα και να ακολουθήσουμε θεωρίες σχεδίασης κινήτρων για τη σχεδίαση μιας αποτελεσματικής παιχνιδοποίησης. Η παρούσα διατριβή εστιάζει στη σχεδίαση παιχνιδοποιημένων δραστηριοτήτων για MOOCs οι οποίες δημιουργούν ομαλές καμπύλες μάθησης για τους εκπαιδευόμενους. Επιπλέον, αξιολογείται η επίδρασή της προτεινόμενης σχεδίασης με τη χρήση ψυχοφυσιολογικών μετρήσεων. Η διατριβή εξετάζει αν η σχεδίαση και ενσωμάτωση ενός στοιχείου των παιχνιδιών και συγκεκριμένα του στοιχείου της εξέλιξης (player’s progression) μπορεί να επηρεάσει τη γνωστική και συναισθηματική κατάσταση των εκπαιδευόμενων σε ένα MOOC. Η σχεδίαση της παιχνιδοποιημένης δραστηριότητας που αναπτύχθηκε στο πλαίσιο της παρούσας διατριβής, βασίστηκε στη θεωρία goal-setting και στην αναθεωρημένη ταξινομία του Bloom. Για την εκτίμηση της αποτελεσματικότητας της προτεινόμενης παρέμβασης, διεξήχθη εμπειρική μελέτη στην πλατφόρμα Coursity με δείγμα πενήντα οκτώ (58) συμμετέχοντες, ηλικίας 19 έως 46 ετών. Χρησιμοποιήθηκε η τεχνική της ηλεκτροεγκεφαλογραφίας (ΗΕΓ) για την αντικειμενική αξιολόγηση της γνωστικής και συναισθηματικής κατάστασης των συμμετεχόντων, εξάγοντας ένα σύνολο από φασματικά χαρακτηριστικά. Συγκεκριμένα, καταγράφθηκε η εγκεφαλική δραστηριότητα των συμμετεχόντων σε δύο διαφορετικές συνθήκες, κατάσταση ηρεμίας-αναφοράς (baseline condition) και κατάσταση έργου (task condition). Υπολογίστηκαν οι απόλυτες και σχετικές τιμές ισχύος σε τέσσερις φασματικές περιοχές του ΗΕΓ σήματος, θήτα (θ), άλφα (α), βήτα (β), low βήτα (low βeta). Επίσης, υπολογίστηκαν λόγοι αυτών των τιμών, όπως η εμπλοκή σε ένα έργο (task engagement) με βάση τον τύπο β/(α+θ), ο λόγος θ/low_β που σχετίζεται με τον έλεγχο προσοχής (attention ratio), ο γνωστικός φόρτος (workload) ως θ/α, η συναισθηματική διέγερση ως (arousal) β/α και το συναισθηματικό σθένος (valence) ως αF4/βF4 – αF3/βF3. Επιπρόσθετα, χορηγήθηκε στους συμμετέχοντες ένα ερωτηματολόγιο ώστε να γίνει αξιολόγηση της αντιληπτής εμπλοκής των συμμετεχόντων (perceived engagement) στη δραστηριότητα. Τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας διατριβής έδειξαν ότι η προτεινόμενη παρέμβαση παιχνιδοποίησης δεν είχε στατιστικά σημαντική επίδραση στη γνωστική και συναισθηματική κατάσταση των συμμετεχόντων. Επιπλέον, η συναισθηματική διέγερση (arousal) των συμμετεχόντων αυξήθηκε σημαντικά κατά τη διάρκεια της δραστηριότητας (task condition) και για τις δύο πειραματικές ομάδες συγκρινόμενη με τις τιμές του διαστήματος αναφοράς (baseline condition). Ο γνωστικός φόρτος των συμμετεχόντων της πειραματικής ομάδας αυξήθηκε σημαντικά μεταξύ των δύο συνθηκών. Τα αποτελέσματα αναφορικά με την αντιληπτή εμπλοκή των συμμετεχόντων έδειξαν ότι δεν υπάρχει στατιστικά σημαντική διαφορά μεταξύ των δύο ομάδων, κάτι το οποίο επιβεβαιώνουν και τα αποτελέσματα από τα νευρολογικά δεδομένα. Η παρούσα έρευνα συνεισφέρει στο πεδίο της σχεδίασης της παιχνιδοποιημένων δραστηριοτήτων για MOOCs οι οποίες βασίζονται σε θεωρίες σχεδίασης κινήτρων καθώς χρησιμοποιεί την θεωρία goal-setting ως θεωρητικό πλαίσιο. Η συγκεκριμένη θεωρία δεν έχει αξιοποιηθεί μέχρι στιγμής στο πεδίο των MOOCs. Η έρευνα παρουσιάζει ψυχοφυσιολογικές μετρήσεις για την αξιολόγηση της παιχνιδοποιημένης μαθησιακής δραστηριότητας ενός MOOC και συμπεραίνει αναφορικά με τη δυνητική συνεισφορά αυτών στη σχεδίαση της παιχνιδοποίησης. Τέλος, η παρούσα έρευνα υποστηρίζει ότι η εγκεφαλογραφία έχει τη δυνατότητα να ενημερώνει τους σχεδιαστές των MOOCs για τη σχεδίαση περισσότερο ελκυστικών μαθημάτων το οποίο μπορεί να βοηθήσει στη μείωση του ποσοστού εγκατάλειψης στα MOOCs.

The role of motivation in children’s credulity toward false testimony

The present research examined the role of motivation in children’s credulity toward false testimony that contradicted their first-hand observations. Children observed an experimenter hide an object in one of three containers. Then, the experimenter provided false testimony about the hiding location of the object, and children were asked to retrieve the object on their own. In a Motivation condition, an object that children rated as desirable was hidden and a negatively framed consequence was presented. In a Baseline condition, children did not rate any objects and were not given a consequence. Overall, 3-year-olds were more credulous toward the false testimony than were 4-year-olds. In addition, 3-year-olds, but not 4-year-olds, were more resistant to the false testimony when exposed to motivating factors than when they were not. These findings can have real-world implications in forensic settings where children may serve as a source of eyewitness testimony. Key words: credulity, motivation, false testimony, first-hand observation

The role of motivation in children’s credulity toward false testimony

The present research examined the role of motivation in children’s credulity toward false testimony that contradicted their first-hand observations. Children observed an experimenter hide an object in one of three containers. Then, the experimenter provided false testimony about the hiding location of the object, and children were asked to retrieve the object on their own. In a Motivation condition, an object that children rated as desirable was hidden and a negatively framed consequence was presented. In a Baseline condition, children did not rate any objects and were not given a consequence. Overall, 3-year-olds were more credulous toward the false testimony than were 4-year-olds. In addition, 3-year-olds, but not 4-year-olds, were more resistant to the false testimony when exposed to motivating factors than when they were not. These findings can have real-world implications in forensic settings where children may serve as a source of eyewitness testimony. Key words: credulity, motivation, false testimony, first-hand observation