Cardiovascular disease is a common cause of death and disease in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Registry data show that 41% of deaths in ESRD patients are due to a variety of cardiovascular causes, such as acute myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, arrhythmia/sudden cardiac death, and stroke. In the general population, each of these disease entities in isolation can be effectively managed according to evidence from large clinical trials and evidence-based guidelines. However, many of these trials did not include patients with ESRD, limiting the transferability of this evidence to the care of patients on dialysis. To complicate matters, cardiovascular events in ESRD patients are likely augmented from a unique interplay of cardiac risk due to both reduced kidney function and the necessity for artificial renal replacement therapies. In this light, the patient on dialysis is subjected to a series of unique factors: the continued presence of the metabolic perturbations of uremia and the peculiar environment of the dialysis treatment itself. Since the ESRD heart is under a considerable amount of strain due to chronic volume overload, rapid electrolyte and fluid shifts, and accelerated vascular calcification, management can be complex and outcomes multifactorial. In this review, we summarize the current evidence regarding management of acute myocardial infarction, heart failure, sudden cardiac death, and atrial fibrillation. We also address modifiable risk factors related to the dialysis procedure itself and highlight recent randomized controlled trials that included dialysis patients and measured important cardiovascular outcomes.
Vitamin D as A Protector of Arterial Health: Potential Role in Peripheral Arterial Disease Formation
