Underwater noise and Arctic marine mammals: review and policy recommendations

2020 ◽  
Vol 28 (4) ◽  
pp. 438-448 ◽  
Author(s):  
William D. Halliday ◽  
Matthew K. Pine ◽  
Stephen J. Insley
Keyword(s):  
Sea Ice ◽  
Marine Mammals ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Auditory Masking ◽  
Underwater Noise ◽  
Noise Levels ◽  
Marine Animals ◽  
Sound Levels ◽  
Ambient Sound

Underwater noise is an important issue globally. Underwater noise can cause auditory masking, behavioural disturbance, hearing damage, and even death for marine animals. While underwater noise levels have been increasing in nonpolar regions, noise levels are thought to be much lower in the Arctic where the presence of sea ice limits anthropogenic activities. However, climate change is causing sea ice to decrease, which is allowing for increased access for noisy anthropogenic activities. Underwater noise may have more severe impacts in the Arctic compared with nonpolar regions due to a combination of lower ambient sound levels and increased sensitivity of Arctic marine animals to underwater noise. Here, we review ambient sound levels in the Arctic, as well as the reactions of Arctic and sub-Arctic marine mammals to underwater noise. We then relate what is known about underwater noise in the Arctic to policies and management solutions for underwater noise and discuss whether Arctic-specific policies are necessary.

scholarly journals Soundscape and ambient noise levels of the Arctic waters around Greenland

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Ladegaard ◽  
Jamie Macauley ◽  
Malene Simon ◽  
Kristin L. Laidre ◽  
Aleksandrina Mitseva ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Ambient Noise ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Open Water ◽  
Anthropogenic Sources ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Underwater Noise ◽  
Noise Levels ◽  
Greenland Sea ◽  
Mammal Species ◽  
Seismic Surveys

AbstractA longer Arctic open water season is expected to increase underwater noise levels due to anthropogenic activities such as shipping, seismic surveys, sonar, and construction. Many Arctic marine mammal species depend on sound for communication, navigation, and foraging, therefore quantifying underwater noise levels is critical for documenting change and providing input to management and legislation. Here we present long-term underwater sound recordings from 26 deployments around Greenland from 2011 to 2020. Ambient noise was analysed in third octave and decade bands and further investigated using generic detectors searching for tonal and transient sounds. Ambient noise levels partly overlap with previous Arctic observations, however we report much lower noise levels than previously documented, specifically for Melville Bay and the Greenland Sea. Consistent seasonal noise patterns occur in Melville Bay, Baffin Bay and Greenland Sea, with noise levels peaking in late summer and autumn correlating with open water periods and seismic surveys. These three regions also had similar tonal detection patterns that peaked in May/June, likely due to bearded seal vocalisations. Biological activity was more readily identified using detectors rather than band levels. We encourage additional research to quantify proportional noise contributions from geophysical, biological, and anthropogenic sources in Arctic waters.

scholarly journals Seasonal Patterns in Ocean Ambient Noise near Sachs Harbour, Northwest Territories + Supplementary Appendix 1 (See Article Tools)

ARCTIC ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 70 (3) ◽  
pp. 239 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen J. Insley ◽  
William D. Halliday ◽  
Tyler De Jong
Keyword(s):  
Sea Ice ◽  
Northwest Territories ◽  
Ambient Noise ◽  
Anthropogenic Sources ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Ambient Conditions ◽  
Noise Levels ◽  
Marine Animals ◽  
Marine Fauna ◽  
The Impact

Ocean ambient noise is a crucial habitat feature for marine animals because it represents the lower threshold of their acoustically active space. Ambient noise is affected by noise from both natural sources, like wind and ice, and anthropogenic sources, such as shipping and seismic surveys. During the ice-covered season, ambient conditions in the Arctic are quieter than those in other regions because sea ice has a dampening effect. Arctic warming induced by climate change can raise noise levels by reducing sea ice coverage and increasing human activity, and these changes may negatively affect several species of marine mammals and other acoustically sensitive marine fauna. We document ambient noise off the west coast of Banks Island near Sachs Harbour, Northwest Territories, to provide baseline noise levels for the eastern Beaufort Sea. Noise levels were comparable to those found in other studies of the Canadian Arctic and Alaska and were typically much lower than levels reported farther south. Stronger wind increased noise, whereas greater ice concentration decreased it, dampening the effect of wind speed. Future work should expand monitoring to other locations in the Arctic, model the impact of increased human activities on ambient noise levels, and predict the impact of these changing levels on marine animals.

scholarly journals The influence of sea ice, wind speed and marine mammals on Southern Ocean ambient sound

2017 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 160370 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sebastian Menze ◽  
Daniel P. Zitterbart ◽  
Ilse van Opzeeland ◽  
Olaf Boebel
Keyword(s):  
Wind Speed ◽  
Southern Ocean ◽  
Sea Ice ◽  
Marine Mammal ◽  
Marine Mammals ◽  
Substantial Part ◽  
Austral Winter ◽  
Sound Levels ◽  
Ambient Sound ◽  
The Antarctic

This paper describes the natural variability of ambient sound in the Southern Ocean, an acoustically pristine marine mammal habitat. Over a 3-year period, two autonomous recorders were moored along the Greenwich meridian to collect underwater passive acoustic data. Ambient sound levels were strongly affected by the annual variation of the sea-ice cover, which decouples local wind speed and sound levels during austral winter. With increasing sea-ice concentration, area and thickness, sound levels decreased while the contribution of distant sources increased. Marine mammal sounds formed a substantial part of the overall acoustic environment, comprising calls produced by Antarctic blue whales ( Balaenoptera musculus intermedia ), fin whales ( Balaenoptera physalus ), Antarctic minke whales ( Balaenoptera bonaerensis ) and leopard seals ( Hydrurga leptonyx ). The combined sound energy of a group or population vocalizing during extended periods contributed species-specific peaks to the ambient sound spectra. The temporal and spatial variation in the contribution of marine mammals to ambient sound suggests annual patterns in migration and behaviour. The Antarctic blue and fin whale contributions were loudest in austral autumn, whereas the Antarctic minke whale contribution was loudest during austral winter and repeatedly showed a diel pattern that coincided with the diel vertical migration of zooplankton.

scholarly journals Assessing vessel slowdown for reducing auditory masking for marine mammals and fish of the western Canadian Arctic

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew K. Pine ◽  
David E. Hannay ◽  
Stephen J. Insley ◽  
William D. Halliday ◽  
Francis Juanes
Keyword(s):  
Marine Mammals ◽  
Auditory Masking ◽  
Ambient Conditions ◽  
Potential Relief ◽  
Study Region ◽  
Mitigation Option ◽  
Speed Reduction ◽  
Cruise Ships ◽  
Sound Levels ◽  
Ambient Sound

Vessel slowdown may be an alternative mitigation option in regions where re-routing shipping corridors to avoid important marine mammal habitat is not possible. We investigated the potential relief in masking in marine mammals and fish from a 10 knot speed reduction of container and cruise ships. The mitigation effect from slower vessels was not equal between ambient sound conditions, species or vessel-type. Under quiet ambient conditions, a speed reduction from 25 to 15 knots resulted in smaller listening space reductions by 16–23%, 10–18%, 1–2%, 5–8% and 8% respectively for belugas, bowheads, bearded seals, ringed seals, and fish, depending on vessel-type. However, under noisy conditions, those savings were between 9 and 19% more, depending on the species. This was due to the differences in species' hearing sensitivities and the low ambient sound levels measured in the study region. Vessel slowdown could be an effective mitigation strategy for reducing masking.

Using art to explore children’s perceptions of their Arctic community in a changing climate 

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Lipson ◽  
Kim Reasor ◽  
Kååre Sikuaq Erickson
Keyword(s):  
Climate Change ◽  
Sea Ice ◽  
Marine Mammals ◽  
School Curriculum ◽  
Arctic Sea Ice ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Polar Bears ◽  
Way Of Life ◽  
Subsistence Hunting ◽  
Sea Ice Decline

<p>In this project we analyze artwork and recorded statements of 5<sup>th</sup> grade students from the community of Utqiaġvik, Alaska, who participated in a science-art outreach activity. The team consisted of a scientist (Lipson), an artist (Reasor) and an outreach specialist (Erickson) of Inupiat heritage from a village in Alaska. We worked with four 5th grade classes of about 25 students each at Fred Ipalook Elementary. The predominantly Inupiat people of Utqiaġvik are among those who will be most impacted by climate change and the loss of Arctic sea ice in the near future. Subsistence hunting of marine mammals associated with sea ice is central to the Inupiat way of life. Furthermore, their coastal homes and infrastructure are increasingly subject to damage from increased wave action on ice-free Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. While the people of this region are among the most directly vulnerable to climate change, the teachers reported that the subject is not generally covered in the elementary school curriculum.</p><p>The scientist and the local outreach specialist gave a short presentation about sea ice and climate change in the Arctic, with emphasis on local impacts to hunting and infrastructure. We then showed the students a large poster of historical and projected sea ice decline, and asked the students to help us fill in the white space beneath the lines. The artist led the children in making small paintings that represent things that are important to their lives in Utqiaġvik (they were encouraged to paint animals, but they were free to do whatever they wanted). We returned to the class later that week and had each student briefly introduce themselves and their painting, and place it on the large graph of sea ice decline, which included the dire predictions of the RCP8.5 scenario. Then we added the more hopeful RCP2.6 scenario to end on a positive note.</p><p>Common themes expressed in the students’ artwork included subsistence hunting, other aspects of traditional Inupiat culture, nature and family. Modern themes such as sports and Pokémon were also common. The students reacted to the topic of climate change with pictures of whales, polar bears and other animals, and captions such as “Save the world/ice/animals.” There were several paintings showing unsuccessful hunts for whales or seals. Some students displayed an understanding of ecosystem science in their recorded statements. For example, a student who painted the sun and another who painted a krill both succinctly described energy flow in food webs that support the production of whales (for example, “I drew krill because without krill there wouldn’t be whales”). Some of the students described the consequences of sea ice loss to local wildlife with devastating succinctness (sea ice is disappearing and polar bears will go extinct). The overall sense was that the children had a strong grasp of the potential consequences of climate change to their region and way of life.</p>

Acoustic detections of Arctic marine mammals near Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada

2019 ◽  
Vol 97 (1) ◽  
pp. 72-80 ◽  
Author(s):  
W.D. Halliday ◽  
M.K. Pine ◽  
S.J. Insley ◽  
R.N. Soares ◽  
P. Kortsalo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Northwest Territories ◽  
Marine Mammals ◽  
Bowhead Whale ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Delphinapterus Leucas ◽  
Anthropogenic Activity ◽  
Marine Animals ◽  
Vocal Activity ◽  
Beluga Whale Delphinapterus Leucas ◽  
Passive Acoustic

The Arctic marine environment is changing rapidly through a combination of sea ice loss and increased anthropogenic activity. Given these changes can affect marine animals in a variety of ways, understanding the spatial and temporal distributions of Arctic marine animals is imperative. We use passive acoustic monitoring to examine the presence of marine mammals near Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada, from October 2016 to April 2017. We documented bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus Linnaeus, 1758) and beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas (Pallas, 1776)) vocalizations later into the autumn than expected, and we recorded bowhead whales in early April. We recorded ringed seal (Pusa hispida (Schreber, 1775)) vocalizations throughout our deployment, with higher vocal activity than in other studies and with peak vocal activity in January. We recorded bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus (Erxleben, 1777)) throughout the deployment, with peak vocal activity in February. We recorded lower bearded seal vocal activity than other studies, and almost no vocal activity near the beginning of the spring breeding season. Both seal species vocalized more when ice concentration was high. These patterns in vocal activity document the presence of each species at this site over autumn and winter and are a useful comparison for future monitoring.

Noise Control Decision Process for Marine Vessels

2014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Raymond W. Fischer ◽  
Louis M. Pettit
Keyword(s):  
Marine Mammals ◽  
Noise Control ◽  
Regulatory Body ◽  
Noise Levels ◽  
Radiated Noise ◽  
Underwater Radiated Noise ◽  
Sound Levels ◽  
Airborne Noise ◽  
Control Decision ◽  
Marine Vessels

There is a price to be paid to achieve compliance with the acoustic requirements imposed by regulatory agencies. Acoustic requirements typically appear in ship specifications as airborne and/or underwater radiated noise limits as the need to preclude hearing loss for crew members and the need to control sound levels experienced by marine mammals receive more recognition. Recent changes and additions to regulatory body requirements addressing compartment airborne noise and underwater radiated noise can be found in IMO Resolution MSC.337(91) Annex 1 and Annex 2 which state that IMO Resolution A.468(XII) “Code on Noise Levels Onboard Ships” shall take effect on 1 July 2014 for all SOLAS compliant vessels. Thus the airborne noise levels in compartments and at on-deck work stations onboard as-built ships seeking a SOLAS certificate will need to be measured, and must demonstrate compliance with noise limits stated in paragraph 4.2 of IMO Resolution A.468(XII). IMO “Guidelines for the Reduction of Underwater Noise from Commercial Shipping to Address Adverse Impacts on Marine Life” dated 7 April 2014 and agencies such as ICES and DNV have established guidance and/or criteria for control of underwater radiated noise from vessels, and these too are now commonly appearing in ship specifications. Specifications referencing such criteria typically require that compliance be demonstrated by at-sea testing of underwater radiated noise. Making the correct decisions during the ship design process will minimize costs for noise control and will provide a positive return on investment. The process of how best to comply with noise limits while minimizing costs through optimization of noise control treatments and design approaches is discussed.

scholarly journals From sea ice to seals: a moored marine ecosystem observatory in the Arctic

Ocean Science ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 14 (6) ◽  
pp. 1423-1433 ◽  
Author(s):  
Claudine Hauri ◽  
Seth Danielson ◽  
Andrew M. P. McDonnell ◽  
Russell R. Hopcroft ◽  
Peter Winsor ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sea Ice ◽  
Marine Mammals ◽  
Chukchi Sea ◽  
Marine Ecosystem ◽  
Extreme Environment ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Zooplankton Abundance ◽  
Test Bed ◽  
Ecosystem Monitoring ◽  
Cold Temperatures

Abstract. Although Arctic marine ecosystems are changing rapidly, year-round monitoring is currently very limited and presents multiple challenges unique to this region. The Chukchi Ecosystem Observatory (CEO) described here uses new sensor technologies to meet needs for continuous, high-resolution, and year-round observations across all levels of the ecosystem in the biologically productive and seasonally ice-covered Chukchi Sea off the northwest coast of Alaska. This mooring array records a broad suite of variables that facilitate observations, yielding better understanding of physical, chemical, and biological couplings, phenologies, and the overall state of this Arctic shelf marine ecosystem. While cold temperatures and 8 months of sea ice cover present challenging conditions for the operation of the CEO, this extreme environment also serves as a rigorous test bed for innovative ecosystem monitoring strategies. Here, we present data from the 2015–2016 CEO deployments that provide new perspectives on the seasonal evolution of sea ice, water column structure, and physical properties, annual cycles in nitrate, dissolved oxygen, phytoplankton blooms, and export, zooplankton abundance and vertical migration, the occurrence of Arctic cod, and vocalizations of marine mammals such as bearded seals. These integrated ecosystem observations are being combined with ship-based observations and modeling to produce a time series that documents biological community responses to changing seasonal sea ice and water temperatures while establishing a scientific basis for ecosystem management.

scholarly journals Variability scaling and consistency in airborne and satellite altimetry measurements of Arctic sea ice

2020 ◽  
Vol 14 (2) ◽  
pp. 751-767
Author(s):  
Shiming Xu ◽  
Lu Zhou ◽  
Bin Wang
Keyword(s):  
Remote Sensing ◽  
Sea Ice ◽  
Snow Depth ◽  
Spatial Scales ◽  
Ice Cover ◽  
Arctic Sea Ice ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
First Year ◽  
Noise Levels ◽  
Wide Range

Abstract. Satellite and airborne remote sensing provide complementary capabilities for the observation of the sea ice cover. However, due to the differences in footprint sizes and noise levels of the measurement techniques, as well as sea ice's variability across scales, it is challenging to carry out inter-comparison or consistently study these observations. In this study we focus on the remote sensing of sea ice thickness parameters and carry out the following: (1) the analysis of variability and its statistical scaling for typical parameters and (2) the consistency study between airborne and satellite measurements. By using collocating data between Operation IceBridge and CryoSat-2 (CS-2) in the Arctic, we show that consistency exists between the variability in radar freeboard estimations, although CryoSat-2 has higher noise levels. Specifically, we notice that the noise levels vary among different CryoSat-2 products, and for the European Space Agency (ESA) CryoSat-2 freeboard product the noise levels are at about 14 and 20 cm for first-year ice (FYI) and multi-year ice (MYI), respectively. On the other hand, for Operation IceBridge and NASA's Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat), it is shown that the variability in snow (or total) freeboard is quantitatively comparable despite more than a 5-year time difference between the two datasets. Furthermore, by using Operation IceBridge data, we also find widespread negative covariance between ice freeboard and snow depth, which only manifests on small spatial scales (40 m for first-year ice and about 80 to 120 m for multi-year ice). This statistical relationship highlights that the snow cover reduces the overall topography of the ice cover. Besides this, there is prevalent positive covariability between snow depth and snow freeboard across a wide range of spatial scales. The variability and consistency analysis calls for more process-oriented observations and modeling activities to elucidate key processes governing snow–ice interaction and sea ice variability on various spatial scales. The statistical results can also be utilized in improving both radar and laser altimetry as well as the validation of sea ice and snow prognostic models.

scholarly journals From sea ice to seals: A moored marine ecosystem observatory in the Arctic

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Claudine Hauri ◽  
Seth Danielson ◽  
Andrew M. P. McDonnell ◽  
Russell R. Hopcroft ◽  
Peter Winsor ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sea Ice ◽  
Marine Mammals ◽  
Chukchi Sea ◽  
Marine Ecosystem ◽  
Extreme Environment ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Zooplankton Abundance ◽  
Test Bed ◽  
Ecosystem Monitoring ◽  
Cold Temperatures

Abstract. Although Arctic marine ecosystems are changing rapidly, year-round monitoring is currently very limited and presents multiple challenges unique to this region. The Chukchi Ecosystem Observatory (CEO) described here uses new sensor technologies to meet needs for continuous, high resolution, and year-round observations across all levels of the ecosystem in the biologically productive and seasonally ice-covered Chukchi Sea off the northwest coast of Alaska. This mooring array records a broad suite of parameters that facilitate observations, yielding better understanding of physical, chemical and biological couplings, phenologies, and the overall state of this Arctic shelf marine ecosystem. While cold temperatures and eight months of sea ice cover present challenging conditions for the operation of the CEO, this extreme environment also serves as a rigorous test bed for innovative ecosystem monitoring strategies. Here, we present data from the 2015–16 CEO deployments that provide new perspectives on the seasonal evolution of sea ice, water column structure and physical properties, annual cycles in nitrate, dissolved oxygen, phytoplankton blooms and export, zooplankton abundance and vertical migration, the occurrence of Arctic cod, and vocalizations of marine mammals such as bearded seals. These integrated ecosystem observations are being combined with ship-based observations and modeling to produce a time-series that documents biological community responses to changing seasonal sea ice and water temperatures while establishing a scientific basis for ecosystem management.

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