Rapid motion of the 1989 Arctic ozone crater as viewed with TOMS data

1991 ◽  
Vol 69 (8-9) ◽  
pp. 1087-1092 ◽  
Author(s):  
F. E. Bunn ◽  
F. W. Thirkettle ◽  
W. F. J. Evans
Keyword(s):  
Soviet Union ◽  
Ozone Depletion ◽  
Total Ozone ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Ozone Layer ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Late Winter ◽  
Western Canada ◽  
Baffin Island ◽  
The Antarctic

The data from the NIMBUS-7 TOMS instrument were used to study the Arctic ozone layer in late winter and spring, 1989. This paper presents an analysis of TOMS total ozone values, to produce a picture of the morphology of the Arctic stratospheric ozone crater in winter–spring 1989. The Arctic crater formed in late January when the vortex moved off the pole to over Scandinavia. The TOMS data clearly show the Arctic ozone-crater feature over Scandinavia and the western Soviet Union, on February 2, 1989. It later moved south to Baffin Island and then, in March, down over Toronto, and eventually to western Canada, near Edmonton. A similar, unexpected, crater was present in the Antarctic fall, on March 15, 1989. This phenomenon is mainly produced by dynamic uplift, but there may be ozone depletion occurring as well owing to reduced temperatures.

scholarly journals Copernicus stratospheric ozone service, 2009–2012: validation, system intercomparison and roles of input data sets

2015 ◽  
Vol 15 (5) ◽  
pp. 2269-2293 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. Lefever ◽  
R. van der A ◽  
F. Baier ◽  
Y. Christophe ◽  
Q. Errera ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Data Assimilation ◽  
Atmospheric Chemistry ◽  
Ozone Depletion ◽  
Total Ozone ◽  
Chemical Constituents ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Atmospheric Composition ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Data Sets ◽  
The Tropics

Abstract. This paper evaluates and discusses the quality of the stratospheric ozone analyses delivered in near real time by the MACC (Monitoring Atmospheric Composition and Climate) project during the 3-year period between September 2009 and September 2012. Ozone analyses produced by four different chemical data assimilation (CDA) systems are examined and compared: the Integrated Forecast System coupled to the Model for OZone And Related chemical Tracers (IFS-MOZART); the Belgian Assimilation System for Chemical ObsErvations (BASCOE); the Synoptic Analysis of Chemical Constituents by Advanced Data Assimilation (SACADA); and the Data Assimilation Model based on Transport Model version 3 (TM3DAM). The assimilated satellite ozone retrievals differed for each system; SACADA and TM3DAM assimilated only total ozone observations, BASCOE assimilated profiles for ozone and some related species, while IFS-MOZART assimilated both types of ozone observations. All analyses deliver total column values that agree well with ground-based observations (biases < 5%) and have a realistic seasonal cycle, except for BASCOE analyses, which underestimate total ozone in the tropics all year long by 7 to 10%, and SACADA analyses, which overestimate total ozone in polar night regions by up to 30%. The validation of the vertical distribution is based on independent observations from ozonesondes and the ACE-FTS (Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment – Fourier Transform Spectrometer) satellite instrument. It cannot be performed with TM3DAM, which is designed only to deliver analyses of total ozone columns. Vertically alternating positive and negative biases are found in the IFS-MOZART analyses as well as an overestimation of 30 to 60% in the polar lower stratosphere during polar ozone depletion events. SACADA underestimates lower stratospheric ozone by up to 50% during these events above the South Pole and overestimates it by approximately the same amount in the tropics. The three-dimensional (3-D) analyses delivered by BASCOE are found to have the best quality among the three systems resolving the vertical dimension, with biases not exceeding 10% all year long, at all stratospheric levels and in all latitude bands, except in the tropical lowermost stratosphere. The northern spring 2011 period is studied in more detail to evaluate the ability of the analyses to represent the exceptional ozone depletion event, which happened above the Arctic in March 2011. Offline sensitivity tests are performed during this month and indicate that the differences between the forward models or the assimilation algorithms are much less important than the characteristics of the assimilated data sets. They also show that IFS-MOZART is able to deliver realistic analyses of ozone both in the troposphere and in the stratosphere, but this requires the assimilation of observations from nadir-looking instruments as well as the assimilation of profiles, which are well resolved vertically and extend into the lowermost stratosphere.

scholarly journals Record low ozone values over the Arctic in boreal spring 2020

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (2) ◽  
pp. 617-633
Author(s):  
Martin Dameris ◽  
Diego G. Loyola ◽  
Matthias Nützel ◽  
Melanie Coldewey-Egbers ◽  
Christophe Lerot ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Northern Hemisphere ◽  
Total Ozone ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Polar Vortex ◽  
Ozone Hole ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Atmospheric Conditions ◽  
Total Ozone Column ◽  
The Antarctic ◽  
Ozone Column

Abstract. Ozone data derived from the Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) sensor on board the Sentinel-5 Precursor satellite show exceptionally low total ozone columns in the polar region of the Northern Hemisphere (Arctic) in spring 2020. Minimum total ozone column values around or below 220 Dobson units (DU) were seen over the Arctic for 5 weeks in March and early April 2020. Usually the persistence of such low total ozone column values in spring is only observed in the polar Southern Hemisphere (Antarctic) and not over the Arctic. These record low total ozone columns were caused by a particularly strong polar vortex in the stratosphere with a persistent cold stratosphere at higher latitudes, a prerequisite for ozone depletion through heterogeneous chemistry. Based on the ERA5, which is the fifth generation of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) atmospheric reanalysis, the Northern Hemisphere winter 2019/2020 (from December to March) showed minimum polar cap temperatures consistently below 195 K around 20 km altitude, which enabled enhanced formation of polar stratospheric clouds. The special situation in spring 2020 is compared and discussed in context with two other Northern Hemisphere spring seasons, namely those in 1997 and 2011, which also displayed relatively low total ozone column values. However, during these years, total ozone columns below 220 DU over several consecutive days were not observed in spring. The similarities and differences of the atmospheric conditions of these three events and possible explanations for the observed features are presented and discussed. It becomes apparent that the monthly mean of the minimum total ozone column value for March 2020 (221 DU) was clearly below the respective values found in March 1997 (267 DU) and 2011 (252 DU), which highlights the special evolution of the polar stratospheric ozone layer in the Northern Hemisphere in spring 2020. A comparison with a typical ozone hole over the Antarctic (e.g., in 2016) indicates that although the Arctic spring 2020 situation is remarkable, with total ozone column values around or below 220 DU observed over a considerable area (up to 0.9 million km2), the Antarctic ozone hole shows total ozone columns typically below 150 DU over a much larger area (of the order of 20 million km2). Furthermore, total ozone columns below 220 DU are typically observed over the Antarctic for about 4 months.

scholarly journals Extreme ozone depletion in the 2010–2011 Arctic winter stratosphere as observed by MIPAS/ENVISAT using a 2-D tomographic approach

2012 ◽  
Vol 12 (19) ◽  
pp. 9149-9165 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. Arnone ◽  
E. Castelli ◽  
E. Papandrea ◽  
M. Carlotti ◽  
B. M. Dinelli
Keyword(s):  
Ozone Depletion ◽  
Potential Temperature ◽  
Michelson Interferometer ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Late Winter ◽  
Infrared Measurements ◽  
Depletion Rate ◽  
Horizontal Inhomogeneity ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
The Antarctic

Abstract. We present observations of the 2010–2011 Arctic winter stratosphere from the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS) onboard ENVISAT. Limb sounding infrared measurements were taken by MIPAS during the Northern polar winter and into the subsequent spring, giving a continuous vertically resolved view of the Arctic dynamics, chemistry and polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). We adopted a 2-D tomographic retrieval approach to account for the strong horizontal inhomogeneity of the atmosphere present under vortex conditions, self-consistently comparing 2011 to the 2-D analysis of 2003–2010. Unlike most Arctic winters, 2011 was characterized by a strong stratospheric vortex lasting until early April. Lower stratospheric temperatures persistently remained below the threshold for PSC formation, extending the PSC season up to mid-March, resulting in significant chlorine activation leading to ozone destruction. On 3 January 2011, PSCs were detected up to 30.5 ± 0.9 km altitude, representing the highest PSCs ever reported in the Arctic. Through inspection of MIPAS spectra, 83% of PSCs were identified as supercooled ternary solution (STS) or STS mixed with nitric acid trihydrate (NAT), 17% formed mostly by NAT particles, and only two cases by ice. In the lower stratosphere at potential temperature 450 K, vortex average ozone showed a daily depletion rate reaching 100 ppbv day−1. In early April at 18 km altitude, 10% of vortex measurements displayed total depletion of ozone, and vortex average values dropped to 0.6 ppmv. This corresponds to a chemical loss from early winter greater than 80%. Ozone loss was accompanied by activation of ClO, associated depletion of its reservoir ClONO2, and significant denitrification, which further delayed the recovery of ozone in spring. Once the PSC season halted, ClO was reconverted primarily into ClONO2. Compared to MIPAS observed 2003–2010 Arctic average values, the 2010–2011 vortex in late winter had 15 K lower temperatures, 40% lower HNO3 and 50% lower ozone, reaching the largest ozone depletion ever observed in the Arctic. The overall picture of this Arctic winter was remarkably closer to conditions typically found in the Antarctic vortex than ever observed before.

Polar ozone depletion: Current status

1991 ◽  
Vol 69 (8-9) ◽  
pp. 1110-1122 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. S. Henderson ◽  
J. C. McConnell ◽  
S. R. Beagley ◽  
W. F. J. Evans
Keyword(s):  
High Latitude ◽  
Ozone Depletion ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Montreal Protocol ◽  
Chemical Mechanism ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Current Status ◽  
Austral Spring ◽  
The Antarctic ◽  
Polar Ozone

Rapid springtime depletion of column ozone (O3) is observed over the Antarctic during the austral spring. A much weaker springtime depletion is observed in the Arctic region. This depletion results from a complex chemical mechanism that involves the catalytic destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorine. The chemical mechanism appears to operate between ~12–25 km in the colder regions of the polar winter vortices. During the polar night heterogeneous chemical reactions occur on the surface of polar stratospheric clouds that convert relatively inert reservoir Cl species such as HCl to active Cl species. These clouds form when temperatures drop below about 197 K and are ubiquitous throughout the polar winter region. At polar sunrise the reactive Cl species are photolysed, liberating large quantities of free Cl that subsequently catalytically destroys O3 with a mechanism involving the formation of the Cl2O2 dimer. The magnitude of the spring depletion is much greater in the Antarctic relative to the Arctic owing to the greater stability and longer duration of the southern polar vortex. Breakup of the intense high-latitude vortices in late (Antarctic) or early (Arctic) spring results in infilling of the ozone holes but adversely affects midlatitude ozone levels by diluting them with O3-depleted, ClO-rich high-latitude air. The magnitude of the Antarctic ozone depletion has been increasing since 1979 and its current depletion in October 1990 amounts to 60%. The increase in the size of the depletion is anticorrelated with increasing anthropogenic chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) release. Adherence to the revised Montréal Protocol should result in a reduction of stratospheric halogen levels with subsequent amelioration of polar ozone depletion but the time constant for the atmosphere to return to pre-CFC levels is ~60–100 years.

scholarly journals Chemical ozone loss in Arctic and Antarctic polar winter/spring season derived from SCIAMACHY limb measurements 2002–2009

2011 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 6555-6599 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. Sonkaew ◽  
C. von Savigny ◽  
K.-U. Eichmann ◽  
M. Weber ◽  
A. Rozanov ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mass Loss ◽  
Total Ozone ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Polar Vortex ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Absorption Bands ◽  
Data Set ◽  
Ozone Loss ◽  
The Difference ◽  
The Antarctic

Abstract. Stratospheric ozone profiles are retrieved for the period 2002–2009 from SCIAMACHY measurements of limb-scattered solar radiation in the Hartley and Chappuis absorption bands of ozone. This data set is used to determine the chemical ozone loss in both the Arctic and Antarctic polar vortices using the vortex average method. The chemical ozone loss at isentropic levels between 450 K and 600 K is derived from the difference between observed ozone abundances and the ozone modelled considering diabatic cooling, but no chemical ozone loss. The results show chemical ozone losses of up to 20–40% between the beginning of January and the end of March inside the Arctic polar vortex. Strong inter-annual variability of the Arctic ozone loss is observed, with the cold winters 2004/2005 and 2006/2007 showing the largest chemical ozone losses. The ozone mass loss inside the polar vortex is also estimated. In the coldest Arctic winter 2004/2005 the total ozone mass loss is about 30 million tons inside the polar vortex between the 450 K and 600 K isentropic levels from the beginning of January until the end of March. The Antarctic vortex averaged ozone loss as well as the size of the polar vortex do not vary much from year to year. At the 475 K isentropic level ozone losses of 70–80% between mid-August and mid-November are observed every year inside the vortex, also in the anomalous year 2002. The total ozone mass loss inside the Antarctic polar vortex between the 450 K and 600 K isentropic levels is about 55–75 million tons for the period between mid-August and mid-November. Comparisons of the vertical variation of ozone loss derived from SCIAMACHY observations with several independent techniques for the Arctic winter 2004/2005 show very good agreement.

A hole in the Arctic polar ozone layer during March 1986

1989 ◽  
Vol 67 (2-3) ◽  
pp. 161-165 ◽  
Author(s):  
W. F. J. Evans
Keyword(s):  
Total Ozone ◽  
Democratic Republic ◽  
Ozone Layer ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer ◽  
Altitude Profile ◽  
Antarctic Ozone ◽  
The Difference ◽  
The Antarctic ◽  
Polar Ozone

A craterlike structure or "hole" in the Arctic polar ozone layer during March 1986 has been observed in the total ozone images from the total ozone mapping spectrometer instrument on the NIMBUS 7 satellite. Observations from ozonesondes in the vicinity of this crater show a depleted region in the altitude profile from 10 to 16 km. This altitude region of depleted ozone is similar to the depleted layer observed from 12 to 18 km within the Antarctic ozone hole. A comparison has been made between the ozone altitude profile outside the crater at Resolute, N.W.T., Canada (75°N), and the ozone altitude profile inside the crater at Lindenberg, German Democratic Republic, (55°N). The difference in these profiles demonstrates that the crater is due to a process that has altered the altitude distribution of ozone in the 10–16 km region. This depletion could be attributed to either a vertical circulation or a chemical-depletion process.

scholarly journals Radiative and Dynamical Influences on Polar Stratospheric Temperature Trends

2016 ◽  
Vol 29 (13) ◽  
pp. 4927-4938 ◽  
Author(s):  
Diane J. Ivy ◽  
Susan Solomon ◽  
Harald E. Rieder
Keyword(s):  
Ozone Depletion ◽  
Lower Stratosphere ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Radiative Cooling ◽  
Late Winter ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Stratospheric Temperature ◽  
Temperature Trends ◽  
The Antarctic

Abstract Radiative and dynamical heating rates control stratospheric temperatures. In this study, radiative temperature trends due to ozone depletion and increasing well-mixed greenhouse gases from 1980 to 2000 in the polar stratosphere are directly evaluated, and the dynamical contributions to temperature trends are estimated as the residual between the observed and radiative trends. The radiative trends are obtained from a seasonally evolving fixed dynamical heating calculation with the Parallel Offline Radiative Transfer model using four different ozone datasets, which provide estimates of observed ozone changes. In the spring and summer seasons, ozone depletion leads to radiative cooling in the lower stratosphere in the Arctic and Antarctic. In Arctic summer there is weak wave driving, and the radiative cooling due to ozone depletion is the dominant driver of observed trends. In late winter and early spring, dynamics dominate the changes in Arctic temperatures. In austral spring and summer in the Antarctic, strong dynamical warming throughout the mid- to lower stratosphere acts to weaken the strong radiative cooling associated with the Antarctic ozone hole and is indicative of a strengthening of the Brewer–Dobson circulation. This dynamical warming is a significant term in the thermal budget over much of the Antarctic summer stratosphere, including in regions where strong radiative cooling due to ozone depletion can still lead to net cooling despite dynamical terms. Quantifying the contributions of changes in radiation and dynamics to stratospheric temperature trends is important for understanding how anthropogenic forcings have affected the historical trends and necessary for projecting the future.

Record springtime stratospheric ozone depletion at 80°N in 2020

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ramina Alwarda ◽  
Kristof Bognar ◽  
Kimberly Strong ◽  
Martyn Chipperfield ◽  
Sandip Dhomse ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Ozone Depletion ◽  
Transport Model ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Polar Vortex ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Optical Absorption Spectroscopy ◽  
Chemical Transport Model ◽  
Polar Stratospheric Clouds ◽  
Ozone Loss ◽  
Stratospheric Clouds

&lt;p&gt;The Arctic winter of 2019-2020 was characterized by an unusually persistent polar vortex and temperatures in the lower stratosphere that were consistently below the threshold for the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs). These conditions led to ozone loss that is comparable to the Antarctic ozone hole. Ground-based measurements from a suite of instruments at the Polar Environment Atmospheric Research Laboratory (PEARL) in Eureka, Canada (80.05&amp;#176;N, 86.42&amp;#176;W) were used to investigate chemical ozone depletion. The vortex was located above Eureka longer than in any previous year in the 20-year dataset and lidar measurements provided evidence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) above Eureka. Additionally, UV-visible zenith-sky Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy (DOAS) measurements showed record ozone loss in the 20-year dataset, evidence of denitrification along with the slowest increase of NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; during spring, as well as enhanced reactive halogen species (OClO and BrO). Complementary measurements of HCl and ClONO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (chlorine reservoir species) from a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer showed unusually low columns that were comparable to 2011, the previous year with significant chemical ozone depletion. Record low values of HNO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; in the FTIR dataset are in accordance with the evidence of PSCs and a denitrified atmosphere. Estimates of chemical ozone loss were derived using passive ozone from the SLIMCAT offline chemical transport model to account for dynamical contributions to the stratospheric ozone budget.&lt;/p&gt;

The Influence of Ozone Feedbacks on Surface Climate following Spring Arctic Ozone Depletion

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marina Friedel ◽  
Gabriel Chiodo ◽  
Andrea Stenke ◽  
Daniela Domeisen ◽  
Stefan Muthers ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Ozone Depletion ◽  
Arctic Oscillation ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Model Simulations ◽  
Temperature Anomalies ◽  
Surface Climate ◽  
Anomalous Surface ◽  
Surface Weather ◽  
Surface Patterns

&lt;p&gt;Links between springtime Arctic stratospheric ozone anomalies and anomalous surface weather in the Northern Hemisphere have been found recently. Stratospheric ozone thus provides valuable information which may help to improve seasonal predictability. However, the extent and causality of the ozone-surface climate coupling remain unclear and many state-of-the-art forecast models lack any representation of ozone feedbacks on planetary circulation.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;We investigate the importance of the ozone-surface climate coupling with two Chemistry Climate Models, contrasting simulations with fully interactive ozone against prescribed zonally averaged climatological ozone under fixed present-day boundary conditions. We focus on springtime Arctic ozone minima and compare subsequent surface patterns in runs with and without interactive ozone, thus rendering a detailed and physically-based quantification of the stratospheric ozone impact on surface climate possible. &amp;#160;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;All model simulations show a connection between Arctic ozone minima and a positive phase of the Arctic Oscillation in the month after the depletion in spring. Runs with interactive ozone chemistry show an amplified surface response and a 40% stronger Arctic Oscillation index after ozone depletion. This amplified Arctic Oscillation goes along with enhanced positive surface temperature anomalies over Eurasia. Moreover, composite surface patterns after spring ozone minima in model simulations with interactive ozone show a better agreement with composites in reanalysis data compared to runs with prescribed ozone.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mechanisms whereby stratospheric ozone affects both the stratospheric and tropospheric circulation are explored. These include the reduction of short-wave heating over the pole due to ozone loss, thus amplifying stratospheric temperature anomalies and allowing for an intensification of the polar vortex with subsequent impacts on wave propagation and the stratospheric meridional circulation. This suggests that ozone is not only passively responding to stratospheric dynamics, but actively feeds back into the circulation. Following these results, stratospheric ozone anomalies actively contribute to anomalous surface weather in spring, emphasizing the potential importance of interactive ozone chemistry for seasonal predictions.&lt;/p&gt;

Lagrangian analysis of the northern polar vortex split in April 2020 during development of the Arctic ozone hole

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jezabel Curbelo ◽  
Gang Chen ◽  
Carlos R. Mechoso
Keyword(s):  
Wave Train ◽  
Stratospheric Ozone ◽  
Polar Vortex ◽  
Early Spring ◽  
Ozone Hole ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Late Winter ◽  
Lagrangian Analysis ◽  
The North ◽  
Vortex Split

&lt;div&gt;The evolution of the Northern Hemisphere stratosphere during late winter and early spring of 2020 was punctuated by outstanding events both in dynamics and tracer evolution. It provides an ideal case for study of the Lagrangian properties of the evolving flow and its connections with the troposphere. The events ranged from an episode of polar warming at upper levels in March, a polar vortex split into two cyclonic vortices at middle and lower levels in April, and a remarkably deep and persistent mass of ozone poor air within the westerly circulation throughout the period. The latter feature was particularly remarkable during 2020, which showed the lowest values of stratospheric ozone on record.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&amp;#160;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;We focus on the vortex split in April 2020 and we examine this split at middle as well as lower stratospheric levels, and the interactions that occurred between the resulting two vortices which determined the distribution of ozone among them. We also examine the connections among stratospheric and tropospheric events during the period.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&amp;#160;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;Our approach for analysis will be based on the application of Lagrangian tools to the flow field, based on following air parcels trajectories, examining barriers to the flow, and the activity and propagation of planetary waves. Our findings confirm the key role for the split played by a flow configuration with a polar hyperbolic trajectory and associated manifolds. A trajectory analysis illustrates the transport of ozone between the vortices during the split. We argue that these stratospheric events were linked to strong synoptic scale disturbances in the troposphere forming a wave train from the north Pacific to North America and Eurasia.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;#160;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Reference:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;J. Curbelo, G. Chen,&amp;#160; C. R. Mechoso. Multi-level analysis of the northern polar vortex split in April 2020 during development of the Arctic ozone hole. Earth and Space Science Open Archive. doi: 10.1002/essoar.10505516.1&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&amp;#160;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Acknowledgements:&lt;/strong&gt; NSF Grant AGS-1832842, RYC2018-025169 and EIN2019-103087.&lt;/div&gt;

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