When Do Children Lose the Language Instinct? A Critical Review of the Critical Periods Literature

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Joshua K. Hartshorne
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Function ◽  
Neural Plasticity ◽  
Critical Review ◽  
First Language ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Critical Periods ◽  
Ample Opportunity ◽  
Learning Language ◽  
Do So

While it is clear that children are more successful at learning language than adults are—whether first language or second—there is no agreement as to why. Is it due to greater neural plasticity, greater motivation, more ample opportunity for learning, superior cognitive function, lack of interference from a first language, or something else? A difficulty in teasing apart these theories is that while they make different empirical predictions, there are few unambiguous facts against which to test the theories. This is particularly true when it comes to the most basic questions about the phenomenon: When does the childhood advantage dissipate, and how rapidly does it do so? I argue that a major reason for the lack of consensus is limitations in the research methods used to date. I conclude by discussing a recently emerging methodology and by making suggestions about the path forward. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Linguistics, Volume 8 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Firearm Instrumentality: Do Guns Make Violent Situations More Lethal?

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Anthony A. Braga ◽  
Elizabeth Griffiths ◽  
Keller Sheppard ◽  
Stephen Douglas
Keyword(s):  
Public Policy ◽  
Online Publication ◽  
Gun Violence ◽  
Gun Control ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Considerable Evidence ◽  
Policy Interventions ◽  
Firearm Availability ◽  
Do So

One of the central debates animating the interpretation of gun research for public policy is the question of whether the presence of firearms independently makes violent situations more lethal, known as an instrumentality effect, or whether determined offenders will simply substitute other weapons to affect fatalities in the absence of guns. The latter position assumes sufficient intentionality among homicide assailants to kill their victims, irrespective of the tools available to do so. Studies on the lethality of guns, the likelihood of injury by weapon type, offender intent, and firearm availability provide considerable evidence that guns contribute to fatalities that would otherwise have been nonfatal assaults. The increasing lethality of guns, based on size and technology, and identifiable gaps in existing gun control policies mean that new and innovative policy interventions are required to reduce firearm fatalities and to alleviate the substantial economic and social costs associated with gun violence. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Criminology, Volume 4 is January 13, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Brain–Machine Interfaces: Closed-Loop Control in an Adaptive System

2021 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Ethan Sorrell ◽  
Michael E. Rule ◽  
Timothy O’Leary
Keyword(s):  
Neural Plasticity ◽  
Closed Loop ◽  
Neural Code ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Closed Loop Control ◽  
Brain Machine Interfaces ◽  
Ongoing Research ◽  
Loop Control ◽  
The Impact

Brain–machine interfaces (BMIs) promise to restore movement and communication in people with paralysis and ultimately allow the human brain to interact seamlessly with external devices, paving the way for a new wave of medical and consumer technology. However, neural activity can adapt and change over time, presenting a substantial challenge for reliable BMI implementation. Large-scale recordings in animal studies now allow us to study how behavioral information is distributed in multiple brain areas, and state-of-the-art interfaces now incorporate models of the brain as a feedback controller. Ongoing research aims to understand the impact of neural plasticity on BMIs and find ways to leverage learning while accommodating unexpected changes in the neural code. We review the current state of experimental and clinical BMI research, focusing on what we know about the neural code, methods for optimizing decoders for closed-loop control, and emerging strategies for addressing neural plasticity. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems, Volume 4 is May 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Oxytocin, Neural Plasticity, and Social Behavior

2021 ◽  
Vol 44 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert C. Froemke ◽  
Larry J. Young
Keyword(s):  
Social Behavior ◽  
Neural Plasticity ◽  
Neural Circuit ◽  
Social Behaviors ◽  
Neuron Activity ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Social Stimuli ◽  
Circuit Function

Oxytocin regulates parturition, lactation, parental nurturing, and many other social behaviors in both sexes. The circuit mechanisms by which oxytocin modulates social behavior are receiving increasing attention. Here, we review recent studies on oxytocin modulation of neural circuit function and social behavior, largely enabled by new methods of monitoring and manipulating oxytocin or oxytocin receptor neurons in vivo. These studies indicate that oxytocin can enhance the salience of social stimuli and increase signal-to-noise ratios by modulating spiking and synaptic plasticity in the context of circuits and networks. We highlight oxytocin effects on social behavior in nontraditional organisms such as prairie voles and discuss opportunities to enhance the utility of these organisms for studying circuit-level modulation of social behaviors. We then discuss recent insights into oxytocin neuron activity during social interactions. We conclude by discussing some of the major questions and opportunities in the field ahead. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Neuroscience, Volume 44 is July 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

scholarly journals Acquisition of Sign Languages

2020 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Diane Lillo-Martin ◽  
Jonathan Henner
Keyword(s):  
Language Acquisition ◽  
First Language ◽  
Deaf Children ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Sign Languages ◽  
Language Deprivation ◽  
Linguistic Input ◽  
Spatial Locations

Natural sign languages of deaf communities are acquired on the same time scale as that of spoken languages if children have access to fluent signers providing input from birth. Infants are sensitive to linguistic information provided visually, and early milestones show many parallels. The modality may affect various areas of language acquisition; such effects include the form of signs (sign phonology), the potential advantage presented by visual iconicity, and the use of spatial locations to represent referents, locations, and movement events. Unfortunately, the vast majority of deaf children do not receive accessible linguistic input in infancy, and these children experience language deprivation. Negative effects on language are observed when first-language acquisition is delayed. For those who eventually begin to learn a sign language, earlier input is associated with better language and academic outcomes. Further research is especially needed with a broader diversity of participants. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Linguistics, Volume 7 is January 14, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Stigmatized Work and Stigmatized Workers

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Glen Kreiner ◽  
Christine A. Mihelcic ◽  
Sven Mikolon
Keyword(s):  
Organizational Behavior ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Social Evaluation ◽  
Organizational Life ◽  
Practical Applications ◽  
Workplace Stigma ◽  
Blind Spots ◽  
Do So

Stigmas pervade organizational life. A stigma is a discrediting social evaluation that devalues an individual or group. We review research on stigmatized work and stigmatized workers, with a particular emphasis on how people become stigmatized and what they (and others) do about it. To do so, we connect stigma to other concepts in its nomological net and compare multiple models of stigma dynamics. We consider the intertwining nature of stigma and identity/image, how context affects stigma, and how stigma is managed by both the stigmatized and the nonstigmatized. We also offer critiques of key blind spots in workplace stigma research and point toward future research in this area that is more interconnected with other literatures and more inclusive of overlooked populations. Our vantage point is that workplace stigma continues to be an exciting domain of research with a high potential for theoretical discoveries and practical applications. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 9 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

The Science of Leadership: A Theoretical Model and Research Agenda

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrew M. Carton
Keyword(s):  
Organizational Behavior ◽  
Research Agenda ◽  
Empirical Literature ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Leader Behaviors ◽  
Single Construct ◽  
Leadership Research ◽  
Do So

I review the empirical literature on leadership, focusing on papers published since 2010. To do so, I introduce a framework composed of two features: whether theories ( a) involve the study of leaders or leading (i.e., the person versus the process) and ( b) conceptualize leadership as a cause or a consequence (i.e., an independent versus dependent variable). This framework can enable future research to accumulate in a more programmatic fashion and help scholars determine where their own studies are located within the landscape of leadership research. I end the review by critically evaluating existing work, arguing that the most popular subcategory of leadership research—lumped conceptualizations of leading, in which scholars examine multiple leader behaviors within a single construct—has significant limitations and may need to be replaced by a greater focus on split conceptualizations of leading, wherein scholars isolate single leader behaviors. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 9 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Chiral Induced Spin Selectivity and Its Implications for Biological Functions

2021 ◽  
Vol 51 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Ron Naaman ◽  
Yossi Paltiel ◽  
David H. Waldeck
Keyword(s):  
Structural Effect ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Main Function ◽  
Chiral Molecule ◽  
Biological Functions ◽  
Chiral Molecules ◽  
The Past ◽  
Pass Through ◽  
Do So

Chirality in life has been preserved throughout evolution. It has been assumed that the main function of chirality is its contribution to structural properties. In the past two decades, however, it has been established that chiral molecules possess unique electronic properties. Electrons that pass through chiral molecules, or even charge displacements within a chiral molecule, do so in a manner that depends on the electron's spin and the molecule's enantiomeric form. This effect, referred to as chiral induced spin selectivity (CISS), has several important implications for the properties of biosystems. Among these implications, CISS facilitates long-range electron transfer, enhances bio-affinities and enantioselectivity, and enables efficient and selective multi-electron redox processes. In this article, we review the CISS effect and some of its manifestations in biological systems. We argue that chirality is preserved so persistently in biology not only because of its structural effect, but also because of its important function in spin polarizing electrons. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biophysics, Volume 51 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

scholarly journals Recollecting What We Once Knew: My Life in Psycholinguistics

2021 ◽  
Vol 73 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Lila R. Gleitman ◽  
Claire Gleitman
Keyword(s):  
Information Processing ◽  
Cognitive Function ◽  
Radical Change ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Major Goal ◽  
Word Meanings ◽  
Extreme Variation ◽  
Processing Mechanisms ◽  
Boot Strapping

The mid-twentieth century brought a radical change in how the linguistics community formulated its major goal, moving from a largely taxonomic science to Chomsky's revolution, which conceptualized language as a higher-order cognitive function. This article reviews the paths (not always direct) that brought Lila Gleitman into contact with that revolution, her contributions to it, and the evolution in her thinking about how language is learned by every child, regardless of extreme variation in the input received. To understand how that occurs, we need to discover what must be learned by the child and what is already there to guide that learning—what must be, in Plato's terms, “recollected.” The growing picture shows a learner equipped with information-processing mechanisms that extract evidence about word meanings using various evidential sources. Chief among these are the observational and linguistic-syntactic contexts in which words occur. The former is supported by a mechanism Gleitman and her collaborators call “propose but verify,” and the latter by a mechanism known as “syntactic boot-strapping.” Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology, Volume 73 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Endogenous Retroviruses Drive Resistance and Promotion of Exogenous Retroviral Homologs

2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Elliott S. Chiu ◽  
Sue VandeWoude
Keyword(s):  
Immune Modulation ◽  
Viral Infections ◽  
Viral Evolution ◽  
Endogenous Retroviruses ◽  
Annual Review ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
Biological Functions ◽  
Self Tolerance ◽  
Vertebrate Hosts ◽  
Insight Into

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) serve as markers of ancient viral infections and provide invaluable insight into host and viral evolution. ERVs have been exapted to assist in performing basic biological functions, including placentation, immune modulation, and oncogenesis. A subset of ERVs share high nucleotide similarity to circulating horizontally transmitted exogenous retrovirus (XRV) progenitors. In these cases, ERV–XRV interactions have been documented and include ( a) recombination to result in ERV–XRV chimeras, ( b) ERV induction of immune self-tolerance to XRV antigens, ( c) ERV antigen interference with XRV receptor binding, and ( d) interactions resulting in both enhancement and restriction of XRV infections. Whereas the mechanisms governing recombination and immune self-tolerance have been partially determined, enhancement and restriction of XRV infection are virus specific and only partially understood. This review summarizes interactions between six unique ERV–XRV pairs, highlighting important ERV biological functions and potential evolutionary histories in vertebrate hosts. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Animal Biosciences, Volume 9 is February 16, 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Literacy in a Second Language

1989 ◽  
Vol 10 ◽  
pp. 145-162 ◽  
Author(s):  
William Grabe
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Language Learning ◽  
Second Language Learning ◽  
First Language ◽  
Learning Context ◽  
Second Language Literacy ◽  
Reading And Writing ◽  
Learning Contexts ◽  
Language Literacy ◽  
Do So

As literacy has emerged to become a major issue in the 1980s, and will continue to do so in the 1990s, the only sure claim to be made is that the notion of literacy is extremely complex and fraught with generally accepted “myths,” hidden assumptions, over-generalizations, and simple all-inclusive responses to the challenges presented. This scenario is no less appropriate to the second language learning context than it is to the first language learning context. Thus, any examination of second language literacy requires discussion of both first language and second perspectives. It is naive to assume that the difficulties, complexities, contradictions, and debates in first language literacy do not apply equally to the large majority of second language learning contexts. Accordingly, second language literacy will be discussed in light of first language perspectives on literacy, reading, and writing, expanding these perspectives into second language contexts. (It should be noted that two excellent reviews of reading and writing in a second language appeared in ARAL IX (Carrell 1989a, Hudelson 1989a). This review should be seen as complementary to these two earlier articles.)

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