The structure of age: in search of barriers to second language acquisition

1997 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 116-137 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ellen Bialystok
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learners ◽  
Alternative Interpretation ◽  
Sensitive Period ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Insufficient Evidence ◽  
Length Of Residence ◽  
Processing Differences

The article examines recent evidence that has been offered to support the notion of a sensitive period for second language acquisition. An analysis of that research leaves several questions unresolved. Two small-scale studies are described which attempt to explore some of these issues. In both cases, it is found that the correspondence between language structures in the first and second language is the most important factor affecting acquisition. The age at which second language acquisitions begins is not a significant factor in either study, but the length of residence, indicating the amount of time spent speaking the second language, is significant in the second study. The conclusion is that there is insufficient evidence to accept the claim that mastery of a second language is determined wholly, or even primarily, by maturational factors. Some suggestions are made for an alternative interpretation based on processing differences between older and younger language learners.

Grammatically Judgments and Second Language Acquisition

1991 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 161-186 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rod Ellis
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Think Aloud ◽  
Grammaticality Judgment ◽  
Dative Alternation ◽  
Think Aloud Protocols ◽  
Chinese Learners ◽  
Theoretical Assumptions

This article takes a critical look at grammaticality judgment tasks in second language acquisition research. It begins by examining the theoretical assumptions that underlie grammaticality judgment tasks, pointing out that previous studies have reported considerable differences between the results obtained from grammaticality judgment tasks and from other, production-oriented tasks. A description of the design features of grammaticality judgment tasks that have been used to date is then provided. There follows an account of a small-scale study designed to investigate the nature of learner judgments. Twenty-one adult advanced Chinese learners of English were asked to judge sentences designed to test their knowledge of dative alternation. The results indicated that the learners rarely used the “not sure” option in the test. Eight of these subjects were then administered a reduced version of the original test as a think-aloud task 1 week later. The results showed that these learners were inconsistent in 22.5% of their judgments. The think-aloud protocols showed that they resorted to a variety of strategies in making judgments. The article concludes by arguing that grammaticality judgment tasks elicit a particular kind of performance that needs to be understood much more thoroughly before it is used as a basis for investigating second language acquisition.

The Effect of Teachers’ Use of Reinforcement on Learners’ Performance in English Language

2019 ◽  
Vol 1 (2) ◽  
pp. 116-129
Author(s):  
Ndegwa Grace Konyu; Dr. Lucy Wathika; Dr Josephine Khaemba
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learners ◽  
Random Sampling ◽  
English Language ◽  
Second Language Learners ◽  
Simple Random Sampling ◽  
Theory And Practice ◽  
Verbatim Transcript

The intention of the study was to establish the effect of teachers’ use of reinforcement on learners’ performance in English language. It was done in selected secondary schools in Nakuru town and used descriptive research design. The study was guided by Gardner and Lambert’s Socio-Educational model of second language acquisition. Stratified random sampling was employed in selecting four schools while simple random sampling was used to choose one stream in form two, three and four in each school for observation. It resulted in eight observational schedules. The study sample of 60 students in form 2-4 and 8 teachers of English was purposively selected for interviews. A total number of 353 learners were observed. The study used interviews, audio recording and Structured Observational Schedules for data collection. The data was presented in form of tables, figures and verbatim transcript excerpts used for exemplification and illustration in a qualitative explication. The findings of the study revealed that second language learners’ performance in English is greatly influenced by teachers’ use of reinforcement. Moreover, it proved that teachers of English give unguarded praises, negative statements and criticisms to English second language learners. This study is a vital contribution to the field of Second Language Acquisition theory and practice with regard to offering information and insight into reinforcement, motivation and attitude in practical language acquisition and learning in the classroom situation. These findings are useful in the improvement of second language learners’ performance in English. Teachers of English will also acquaint themselves with effective use of positive verbal reinforcement which works as a motivational force on learners’ acquisition and use of the English language.

World Englishes, Second Language Acquisition, and Language Contact

2015 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rajend Mesthrie
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learners ◽  
Language Contact ◽  
Second Language Learners ◽  
World Englishes ◽  
Target Language ◽  
Political Dimension ◽  
Second Languages

Although areas of potential overlap between the fields of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and World Englishes (WE) may seem obvious, they developed historically in isolation from each other. SLA had a psycholinguistic emphasis, studying the ways in which individuals progressed towards acquisition of a target language. WE studies initially developed a sociolinguistic focus, describing varieties that arose as second languages in former British colonies. This chapter explores the way in which each field could benefit from the other. The SLA emphasis on routes of development, overgeneralization, universals of SLA, and transfer in the interlanguage has relevance to characterizing sub-varieties of WEs. Conversely, the socio-political dimension of early WE studies and the notion of macro- or group acquisition fills a gap in SLA studies which sometimes failed to acknowledge that the goal of second language learners was to become bilingual in ways that were socially meaningful within their societies.

Metonymic inferencing and second language acquisition

AILA Review ◽  
2010 ◽  
Vol 23 ◽  
pp. 134-155 ◽  
Author(s):  
Antonio Barcelona
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learners ◽  
Language Comprehension ◽  
Second Language Learners ◽  
Linguistic Research ◽  
Cognitive Linguistic ◽  
Lexical Polysemy

The article is a reflection on the various areas of cognitive linguistic research on metonymy that are of potential relevance for SLA. Three of them are particularly relevant: (1) research on metonymy-guided inferencing; (2) research on metonymy-based lexical polysemy, and (3) research on metonymy-based grammatical constructions. Of the three main areas with which the paper is mainly concerned, area (1) is particularly relevant for research on second language comprehension, especially in utterance and discourse types heavily relying on the inferential work of the comprehender; area (2) has already proved to be very useful for research on the inferencing strategies followed by second language learners in their comprehension of new lexical senses in context; and area (3) should be helpful for research on the acquisition of grammatical constructions by these learners.

Noticing in second language acquisition: a critical review

1998 ◽  
Vol 14 (2) ◽  
pp. 103-135 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Truscott
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Cognitive Psychology ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learners ◽  
Critical Review ◽  
Second Language Learners ◽  
Theory Of Language ◽  
Indirect Tests ◽  
Metalinguistic Knowledge

This article examines the Noticing Hypothesis – the claim that second language learners must consciously notice the grammatical form of their input in order to acquire grammar. I argue, first, that the foundations of the hypothesis in cognitive psychology are weak; research in this area does not support it, or even provide a clear interpretation for it. The problem of interpreting the hypothesis is much more acute in the area of language acquisition. Partly because the hypothesis is not based on any coherent theory of language, it is very difficult to determine exactly what it means in this context,or to draw testable predictions from it.In the absence of specific predictions, research on form-focused instruction and feedback provide indirect tests, the results of which create additional problems for the hypothesis. The various problems can be eliminated or greatly reduced if the Noticing Hypothesis is reformulated as a claim that noticing is necessary for the acquisition of metalinguistic knowledge but not competence.

scholarly journals A Review of Language Learning Strategy Research

2018 ◽  
Vol 8 (5) ◽  
pp. 522
Author(s):  
Yanfei Su
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Individual Differences ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learning ◽  
Learning Strategy ◽  
Mainland China ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Strategy Research ◽  
Language Learning Strategy

Language learning strategy, a crucial variable of individual differences in second language acquisition (SLA), has been a fiercely discussed topic since 1970s, attracting a large number of researchers and teachers who have already made great achievements. This article aims to conduct a small-scale review of studies concerning language learning strategy, finding that studies in this respect were done mainly from perspectives of definition, identification and classification, usage and assessment and instruction of language learning strategy, and factors which exert influences on it. It is plausible to say that research on this issue is comparatively comprehensive, appreciating wide coverage and great achievements, but certain points are still in controversy. Although there are many related studies, rare studies were devoted to language learning strategy under the context of learners in mainland China. Subsequently, implications for further research and pedagogy in terms of language learning strategy are discussed.

scholarly journals Review and Evaluation on the Sociocultural Theory and Bottleneck Hypothesis

2020 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 58
Author(s):  
Fan Xu
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learning ◽  
Language Learners ◽  
Sociocultural Theory ◽  
Second Language Learners ◽  
Specific Aspect ◽  
Language Teachers ◽  
Psychology Education

Over the past three decades, a growing number of different theories in second language acquisition field have come out in an effort to provide explanations as to how language learning takes place, to figure out what variables are effective for second language acquisition as well as to offer guidance to mass second language learners and language teachers. Because behind every teaching approach exists certain kind of theory of language acquisition and good theory in turn can help students master language skills in an effective and efficient way.Each theory is considered to have contributed to the field by highlighting a specific aspect of the language acquisition process. Second language acquisition theories are intrinsically related with various disciplines such as applied linguistics, psychology, education, sociolinguistics, neurology, etc. Considering the impossibility to elaborate all second language theories, I will focus on sociocultural theory and bottleneck hypothesis in second language acquisition. There is an overview which follows the introduction to the Sociocultural Theory and Bottleneck Hypothesis and its contribution to second language acquisition respectively, and then I will evaluate them to see their contributions to the SLA disciplinary development.

scholarly journals Education and Input as Predictors of Second Language Attainment in Naturalistic Contexts

Languages ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 4 (3) ◽  
pp. 70 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eleni Janko ◽  
Ewa Dąbrowska ◽  
James A. Street
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Spontaneous Speech ◽  
Past Tense ◽  
Length Of Residence ◽  
Number Agreement ◽  
Functional Load ◽  
Lexical Richness ◽  
Grammatical Complexity

This study examines the effects of education and input as predictors of adult second language acquisition in naturalistic contexts. L1 Albanian learners of Greek who differed in amount of schooling (from 4 to 16 years) and length of residence (from 8 to 27 years) completed elicitation tasks that tested mastery of gender and number agreement, and past tense morphology. In addition, samples of spontaneous speech were assessed for fluency, grammatical complexity, and lexical richness in order to establish the learners’ overall proficiency in the L2. We hypothesized that education would facilitate attention to form and hence lead to better attainment of grammatical distinctions with relatively low functional load, particularly when these are complex. Quantity of input would be most strongly associated with aspects of language that are most relevant to communication, and in particular, fluency. These predictions were largely confirmed: education accounted for 15% of the variance on adjective number agreement and between 31% and 38% of the variance in performance on past tense morphology, which is considerably more complex. Fluency and clausal density, in contrast, were associated with length of residence but not with education.

Translation in Light of Bilingual Mental Lexicon: A Psycholinguistic Approach

2018 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 165
Author(s):  
Congmin Zhao
Keyword(s):  
Second Language ◽  
Second Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Acquisition ◽  
Language Learners ◽  
Language Use ◽  
Second Language Learners ◽  
First Language ◽  
Mental Lexicon ◽  
Insight Into

This paper gives insight into the translating process of second language learners in language use in light of the mechanism of bilingual mental lexicon. Structure and development of second language mental lexicon explains the existence of first language items and translation equivalents. Conversely translation can promote the construction of second language mental lexicon and ultimately second language acquisition.

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