„… wo der Dollmetsch allzeit interpretirt.“

2013 ◽  
Vol 58 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Clara Reiter
Keyword(s):  
Present Article ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Professional Group ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Habsburg Monarchy ◽  
Complex Group ◽  
Imperial Court ◽  
Main Components ◽  
The 19Th Century

AbstractThe present article focuses on court interpreters at the Imperial court of Vienna, who were employed in the Habsburg Monarchy from the early 16th century until the end of the 19th century. Based on the methodological concepts of professional intercultures introduced by Anthony Pym the article discusses the question whether or not court interpreters formed a professional group at the court. Different aspects of their profession such as competencies, remuneration, duties, reputation and their place in the organization of the court are discussed. For the application of Anthony Pyms model it will be shown that two main components, time and the intern differentiation of the group, are necessary to apply the model on a professional group like the court interpreters that was a highly complex group characterized by strong changes throughout their existence.

scholarly journals “I have Learned Non-Euclidean Geometry Just from this Book” - Some facets of the correspondence between Friedrich Engel and David Hilbert

2021 ◽  
Vol 76 (3) ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter Ullrich
Keyword(s):  
Present Article ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Euclidean Geometry ◽  
Academic Life ◽  
David Hilbert ◽  
Non Euclidean Geometry ◽  
The 19Th Century

AbstractFriedrich Engel and David Hilbert learned to know each other at Leipzig in 1885 and exchanged letters in particular during the next 15 years which contain interesting information on the academic life of mathematicians at the end of the 19th century. In the present article we will mainly discuss a statement by Hilbert himself on Moritz Pasch’s influence on his views of geometry, and on personnel politics concerning Hermann Minkowski and Eduard Study but also Engel himself.

Entropy Elasticity in High Polymers

1967 ◽  
Vol 40 (3) ◽  
pp. 777-785
Author(s):  
Friedrich Linhardt
Keyword(s):  
Present Article ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Experimental Approach ◽  
Operating Temperature ◽  
Elastic Behavior ◽  
Unusual Property ◽  
Vulcanized Rubber ◽  
Entropy Elasticity ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
High Polymers

Abstract Vulcanized rubber has an unusual property, known early in the 19th century, but not understood until 1935: it increases in stiffness with rise in operating temperature. A strip of rubber loaded with a weight and heated does not stretch; on the contrary, it contracts to some extent. Theoretical interpretations of this effect showed deformation of rubber, as well as its softness and high extensibility, to be determined by entropy, among other things. “Entropy elasticity” was looked upon as a peculiarity of rubber. It was thus only logical, when materials were classified as “rubbers” that they should be distinguished from all other materials by using the expression “entropy elastic behavior”. To be sure, one is inclined today to consider entropy elasticity a characteristic of all high polymers, including those not crosslinked. The present article reports an experimental approach to this problem.

Origine et diffusion des expressions romanes du type jaune paille

2021 ◽  
Vol 133 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-27
Author(s):  
Sara Matrisciano ◽  
Franz Rainer
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Romance Languages ◽  
Short Discussion ◽  
Colour Term ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
And Diffusion

All major Romance languages have patterns of the type jaune paille for expressing shades of colour represented by some prototypical object. The first constituent of this pattern is a colour term, while the second one designates a prototypical representative of the colour shade. The present paper starts with a short discussion of the controversial grammatical status of this pattern and its constituents. Its main aim, however, concerns the origin and diffusion of this pattern. We have not found hard and fast evidence that Medieval Italian pigment compounds of the type verderame influenced the rise of the jaune paille pattern, which first appears in French in the 16th century. This pattern continued to be a minority solution during the 17th century, but established itself during the 18th century. In the 19th century, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese adopted the pattern jaune paille, while it did not reach Catalan and Romanian before the 20th century.

scholarly journals Nauka sztuki kupieckiej w Krakowie XVI–XIX wieku. Zarys problemu

2019 ◽  
pp. 7-20
Author(s):  
Marcin Gadocha
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Foster Parents ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Birth Certificate ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article is a survey and an attempt to bring closer the questions connected with the education of future tradesmen in Cracow from the 16th century until the first half of the 19th century. Thus far, there has been no thorough study devoted to this topic. In the 16th century, young adepts of trade would start learning this occupation in their father’s business, further family’s business or in the dynamically developing trading houses in Cracow. In the 16th c. and 17th c. there was no merchants’ guild in Cracow, which could oversee the process of learning the “art of trade”. Only the establishment of the Merchants’ Congregation in 1722 brought about changes in this respect. Ultimately, in the new statute of the Congregation from 1833, the new principles of training were formulated. Candidates had to present their birth certificate, the recommending certificate written by their parents or foster parents. Moreover, the candidate had to be able to read, write and calculate in Polish or German. Learning took three years in the 16th and 17th centuries; in the 18th century this period was prolonged, in the 19th century lasted from 4 to 6 years. According to the author, the problem still requires further in-depth research. After the archival query, it seems that there are good possibilities to obtain valuable material connected with mercantile art in Cracow.

The Drawings and the Modine of Francesco Pieroni for the Ministero delle Finanze in Rome

2019 ◽  
pp. 242-272
Author(s):  
Liliana Ninarello
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Archival Research ◽  
Construction Companies ◽  
Different Types ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Work Done ◽  
Real Scale

The main focus of this chapter is the highly valued work done by the architect Francesco Pieroni at the Ministero delle Finanze in Rome. This contribution can to attribute to Pieroni various drawings and numerous modine, i.e. real scale cardboard templates of various shapes used in the realization phases of the mouldings. Pieroni's activity represents, in the Roman context, one of the first applications of typical 16th century mouldings, to modern and prefabricated metal bar structures, spreading in the 70's of the 19th century. The construction companies were resilient to agree for changes in building techniques due to a lack of expertise. The realization of the Ministero is a case study of this phenomenon. The archival research developed casts new light on the numerous modifications carried out by Peroni during construction phases, which demonstrate the accuracy employed by the architect in designing the stuccos. The chapter analyses two different types of archive documents: the report Spoglio modificazioni lavori di stucco, and the examples of modine authored by Pieroni.

The Ottomans in Northeast Africa

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. C. S. Peacock
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Red Sea ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Nile Valley ◽  
The Third ◽  
Red Sea Coast ◽  
Northeast Africa ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Sea Coast

In the mid-16th century, the Ottoman empire expanded to encompass parts of the modern Sudan, Eritrea, and the Ethiopian borderlands, forming the Ottoman province of Habeş. The Ottomans also provided aid to their ally Ahmad Grañ in his jihad against Ethiopia and fought with the Funj sultanate of Sinnar for control of the Nile valley, where Ottoman territories briefly extended south as far as the Third Cataract. After 1579, Ottoman control was limited to the Red Sea coast, in particular the ports of Massawa and Suakin, which remained loosely under Ottoman rule until the 19th century, when they were transferred to Egypt, nominally an Ottoman vassal but effectively independent. Politically, Ottoman influence was felt much more broadly in northeast Africa in places as distant as Mogadishu, at least nominally recognized Ottoman suzerainty.

The Franz Mayer Collection and the Rogerio Casas-Alatriste H. Library

2012 ◽  
Vol 37 (4) ◽  
pp. 27-30
Author(s):  
Miriam Velázquez Martínez
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Mexico City ◽  
Decorative Arts ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
25Th Anniversary ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Temporary Exhibitions

The existence of the Franz Mayer Museum is due to the German philanthropist and naturalized Mexican, Franz Gabriel Mayer Traumann Altschul (1882-1975), who bequeathed to the Mexican people his library and decorative arts collection. Considered the most important of its kind in the country, it includes works from the 16th through the 19th centuries, from America, Europe and Asia. It is located in Mexico City, in a building dating from the second half of the 16th century, and celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2011. The Library, which is open to researchers, is currently made up of around 22,000 volumes, and specializes in decorative arts and the history of Mexico in the 19th century, among other subjects. As well as displaying the Mayer Collection the Museum also presents temporary exhibitions on decorative arts, contemporary design and photography, while the library holds two exhibitions a year highlighting the bibliographic collections.

scholarly journals Reindeer pastoralism in Sweden 1550-1950

Rangifer ◽  
2007 ◽  
Vol 27 (3) ◽  
pp. 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lennart Lundmark
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
State Intervention ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Detailed Knowledge ◽  
Reindeer Herding ◽  
The North ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
The 19Th Century

In the middle of the 16th century we get the first opportunity to a more detailed knowledge of reindeerpastoralism in Sweden. At that time the Sami lived in a hunter-gatherer economy. A family had in average about 10-20 domesticated reindeer, mainly used for transport. They could also be milked and used as decoys when hunting wild reindeer. During late 16th century the Swedish state and merchants bought large amounts of fur from the Sami. The common payment was butter and flour. This created a new prosperity, which lead to a considerable increase in population in Swedish Lapland. The population became too large for a hunter-gatherer economy. A crisis in early 17th century was the starting point for the transition to a large-scale nomadic reindeer pastoralism. Up to the middle of the 18th century intensive reindeer pastoralism was successful. But the pastoralism became gradually too intensive and diseases started to spread when the herds were kept too densely crowded for milking in summertime. During the first decades of the 19th century reindeer pastoralism in Sweden went through a major crisis. The number of reindeer herding mountain-Sami decreased considerably, mainly because they went to live permanently along the Norwegian coastline. Intensive reindeer pastoralism started to give way for extensive herding towards the end of the 19th century. In the north of Sweden influences from the Kautokeino Sami were an important factor, in the south extensive reindeer herding started to expand when the market for meat came closer to the Sami. During the 1920s the milking of reindeer ceased in Sweden, except in a few families. At that time Sami families from the north had been removed southwards. They further demonstrated the superiority of extensive herding to the Sami in mid- and southern Lapland. Reindeer pastoralism is basically a system of interaction between man and animal, but it has been heavily influenced by market forces and state intervention during hundreds of years. To a large extent these long-term external influences have made reindeer pastoralism what it is today. That aspect should not be overlooked when assessing the future prospects of reindeer pastoralism in Scandinavia.Renskötseln i Sverige 1550-1950Abstract in Swedish / Sammanfattning: Först vid mitten av 1500-talet finns det källmaterial som ger oss en tämligen detaljerad bild av renskötseln i Sverige. Vid den tiden levde samerna i en jakt- , fiske- och samlarekonomi. En familj hade normalt 10-20 renar som främst utnyttjades vid transporter. Tamrenarna kunde också mjölkas och fungera som lockdjur vid vildrensjakt. Under senare delen av 1500-talet köpte svenska staten och handelsmän stora mängder pälsverk av samerna. Den vanligaste betalningen var smör och mjöl. Detta skapade ett välstånd som ledde till en betydande folkökning i svenska lappmarken. Befolkningen blev för stor för att rymmas inom ramarna för en jaktochfiskeekonomi. En kris i början av 1600-talet blev startpunkten för övergången till en storskalig rennomadism.Fram till mitten av 1700-talet var den intensiva renskötseln framgångsrik. Men renskötseln blev efterhand alltför intensiv. Under senare delen av 1700-talet började det spridas sjukdomar i de tätt sammanhållna hjordarna. De första decennierna av 1800-talet innebar en allvarlig kris i renskötseln. Antalet renskötande fjällsamer minskade kraftigt, främst genom utvandring till norska kusten. Den intensiva renskötseln med mjölkning av renarna började ersättas av en extensiv renskötsel inriktad på köttproduktion de sista decennierna av 1800-talet. I norr var naturförhållandena och influenser från Kautokeino-samerna en viktig faktor, i söder utvecklades renskötseln i extensiv riktning främst därför att marknaden för renkött kom närmare renskötarna. Under 1920-talet upphörde mjölkningen av renar i Sverige, utom i några enstaka familjer. Då hade förflyttningarna av samer från nordligaste Sverige söderut påskyndat utvecklingen och ytterligare markerat den extensiva renskötselteknikensöverlägsenhet. Tamrenskötsel är ett samspel mellan människa och djur, men det är inte bara en fråga om renskötaren och hans hjord. Externa marknadsfaktorer, beskattning och lagstiftning har haft ett betydandeinflytande på renskötselns utveckling under hundratals år. De har till stor del format renskötseln till vad den är idag. Detta bör beaktas när man gör bedömningar av renskötselns framtid. 

scholarly journals Organizacja pracy więźniów w Królestwie Polskim w latach 1815-1867

2018 ◽  
Vol 69 (2) ◽  
pp. 111-135
Author(s):  
Justyna Bieda
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Penal Code ◽  
Public Works ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Statutory Law ◽  
Penal Codes ◽  
Criminal Legislation ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
First Time ◽  
Additional Form

The convicts’ obligation to perform prison labour as an additional form of punishment beyond imprisonment appeared for the first time in the 16th century together with the creation of houses of correction. In the 19th century, statutory law pertaining to labour was regulated in many European penal codes. This concept was also included in the criminal legislation which was in force in the Kingdom of Poland, i.e. in the Penal Code (in forcesince 1818) and in the Code of Major and Correctional Punishments (since 1848). Initially, the work carried out by the prisoners in the Kingdom of Poland was primarily fiscal in nature. The purpose of the labour was for the prisoners to, at least partially, earn a living. However, the penitentiary concepts which began to emerge from the 1930s onwards also started to notice the educational and resocialization value of convict labour. At first, theprisoners were mainly engaged in public works. And later, after 1832, they were put to work in prison workshops and factories. Moreover, they performed services for the benefit of private individuals. The Penal Code obliged the prisoners to work in case of convicts placed in prisons and jails. The Code of Major and Correctional Punishments, which was in force since 1848, maintained the prison labour obligation of the convicts’ sentenced toimprisonment. This additional sanction was connected with the punishment of imprisonment in detention centres and it was also connected with being detained in workhouses or in houses of correction. People sentenced to lighter punishments and those temporarily deprived of liberty were free from penal labour.

scholarly journals Relationships between Czech and Slovak scholars between the years of 1850 and 1882

2020 ◽  
Vol 147 (2) ◽  
pp. 401-416
Author(s):  
Zuzana Kudzbelová
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Historical Background ◽  
The Political ◽  
Habsburg Monarchy ◽  
Political Situation ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Close Contacts

Slovak scholars maintained close contacts with the Czech milieu in the 19th century, for which there are several reasons (for example, the historical background, related to the issue of language and religion, the political situation in the Habsburg Monarchy). This paper sheds light on certain types of cooperation which took place between Czech and Slovak scholars between the years 1850 and 1882: cooperation in the field of journalism, publishing and editing the first Czech encyclopaedia.

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