The response of contemporary trees to strong winds (gale force and greater) is repeatable and well defined, as shown by field studies in south east Britain after the October 1987 and January 1990 events, combined with awide-ranging literature survey. It involves the general processes of windprune, windsnap, windtilt and windthrow. Windprune depends on a range of physical and physiological mechanisms and leads to the loss of axial symmetry by a tree, especially where open-grown at an exposed site. Windsnap, windtilt and windthrow see the fall of a tree, as the result of either the breaking of the trunk or partial to full uprooting. Damage of this sort in a forest or woodland ranges from single trees, to scattered groups (swathes), to general devastation. In the main, perfectly healthy trees in youth or early maturity are affected by windsnap, windtilt and windthrow during strong wind events. Their fall-direction is readily established using the position of the rootball or snapped end of the trunk, the alignment of a broken trunk and stump, the taper of the trunk, the position on the trunk of relatively crowded branches (tree crown), and the position of the typically upward acute angle between branch and trunk. Contemporary trees overthrown by wind fall in a direction close to the wind. The variance of fall-directions in a sample due to a single wind event is observed to increase with the size of the woodland area from which the sample is drawn, but appears to become constant for sample areas in excess of 10
2
- 10
3
ha. Because this constant variance is relatively small, the mean fall-direction becomes, in contemporary woodlands and forests, a trustworthy indicator of the general direction of the strong wind which felled the trees. Rooted peats of mid Flandrian age (
ca
. 6000-2500 conventional radiocarbon years) which include prostrate trees are widely present among the post-glacial estuarine silts exposed along the shores of the Severn Estuary and the inner Bristol Channel. The trees when overthrown appear in the main to have been perfectly healthy and in youth to early maturity. Oak and alder are the predominant species, and their fall-directions, as judged from the criteria listed from contemporary forests and woodlands, and measured at 18 horizons distributed over 14 sites, are highly coherent both locally and over the area as a whole. Using a model in which the variance of fall-directions observed for a single event is combined with a probability density for event mean directions, it appears that the trees fossilized in the peats were felled by strong winds which blew chiefly toward a range of directions from N.N.W . clockwise to S.S.E. A westerly zonal air-flow is indicated but, compared to the contemns than now, with a greater emphasis on both southerly and westerly to northwesterly blows.
A methodology to conduct wind damage field surveys for high-impact weather events of convective origin
