scholarly journals Differences in income distributions for men and women in the European Union countries

Equilibrium ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 14 (1) ◽  
pp. 81-98
Author(s):  
Joanna Landmesser
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Empirical Studies ◽  
Value Added ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Income Distributions ◽  
Income Inequalities ◽  
Decomposition Procedure

Research background: Recently there has been an increase in interest in the studies of income inequalities. The findings of numerous empirical studies show that males earn higher wages than females. A variety of techniques of income inequalities decomposition are becoming popular. New procedures go far beyond the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition. They allow to study differences of income distributions for various groups of people and to decompose them at various quantile points. Purpose of the article: The aim of the paper is to compare personal income distributions in selected countries of the European Union, taking into account gender differences. Methods: First, we examined the income inequalities between men and women in each country using the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition procedure. The unexplained part of the gender pay gap gave us information about the wage discrimination. Second, we extended the decomposition procedure to different quantile points along the whole income distribution. To describe differences between the incomes of men and women, we constructed the so-called counterfactual distribution, which is a mixture of a conditional distribution of the dependent variable (income) and a distribution of the explanatory variables (individual people’s characteristics). Then, we utilized the residual imputation approach (JMP-approach). Findings & Value added: In the article data from EU-SILC (Statistics on Income and Living Conditions) were used. We found that there exists an important diversity in the size of the gender pay gap across members of the European Union. The results obtained for these countries allowed us to group them into clusters. In general, there are two types of countries in Europe: the countries, where the bulk of the observed income differences cannot be explained by observed characteristics, and the countries, where the explained and the unexplained effects are both positive, with even a bigger explained effect for the lower income ranges.

scholarly journals Gender Equality in Europe; Developments with reference to Gender Pay Gap and Violence

2021 ◽  
Vol VI (I) ◽  
pp. 1-8
Author(s):  
Zaheer Iqbal Cheema ◽  
Ali Nawaz ◽  
Jawwad Riaz
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Gender Equality ◽  
Policy Development ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Gender Based Violence ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Gender Parity ◽  
Gender Based ◽  
And Gender

The European Union has kept the agenda of gender equality at the front line of legislation and policy development. The research examined the policies and the efficacy of the European Union in endorsing gender equality and determines where the Union’s system has proved to be less effective. Despite the efforts by the European Union in addressing gender-related issues, a slow improvement has been indicated in achieving gender parity. Inequality persists in many domains of gender equality, including the gender pay gap and gender-based violence. Our research suggests that adequate attention in terms of relevance, effective implementation and funding must be given to all domains of gender equality.

scholarly journals DIFFERENCES IN INCOME DISTRIBUTIONS FOR MEN AND WOMEN IN POLAND – AN ANALYSIS USING DECOMPOSITION TECHNIQUES

2017 ◽  
Vol 16 (4) ◽  
pp. 103-112
Author(s):  
Joanna Landmesser
Keyword(s):  
Personal Characteristics ◽  
Decomposition Methods ◽  
Wage Discrimination ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Income Distributions ◽  
Decomposition Procedure ◽  
Rif Regression ◽  
Imputation Approach ◽  
The Eu

In the paper, we compare income distributions in Poland, taking into account gender differences. The gender pay gap can only be partially explained by differences in men’s and women’s characteristics. The unexplained part of the gap is usually attributed to the wage discrimination. The objective of the study is to extend the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition procedure to different quantile points along the income distribution. We utilize such decomposition methods as the residual imputation approach, the reweighting approach and the RIF-regression method to describe differences between the incomes of men and women along the two distributions. We evaluate the strength of the influence of personal characteristics onto the various parts of the income distributions. The analysis is based on data from the EU-SILC data for Poland in 2014.

scholarly journals Gender wage differences in the selected Czech public sector company

2012 ◽  
Vol 60 (7) ◽  
pp. 81-88
Author(s):  
Veronika Hedija ◽  
Petr Musil
Keyword(s):  
Public Sector ◽  
Wage Discrimination ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Wage Differences ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
The Public ◽  
Root Cause ◽  
Different Characteristics

The issue of wage disparity between men and women belongs to the current and widely discussed topics. The attention given to this subject also reflects the fact that the issue of the equality between women and men and non-discrimination by gender is incorporated in the law of the European Union. A number of studies are devoted to the gender wage disparities and the root cause of wage differences in the Czech Republic, however, only few of these deal with the gender wage differentials in the public sector. It is exactly this issue, which is discussed in this article, its aim being to identify the extent of the gender pay gap in the selected Czech public sector company. The article concentrates on finding the main causes for the existence of wage differences between men and women and determining whether the company inclines to wage discrimination against women. The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition is used to define, which part of the gender pay gap can be attributed to the different characteristics of men and women and which part stays unexplained. It is this unexplained part that can be the result of wage discrimination against women.

Decomposition of gender pay gap by means of counterfactual distribution construction using hazard functions

2018 ◽  
Vol 63 (3) ◽  
pp. 5-23
Author(s):  
Joanna M. Landmesser ◽  
Dominika M. Urbańczyk
Keyword(s):  
Cumulative Distribution Function ◽  
Cumulative Distribution ◽  
Income Growth ◽  
Gender Inequalities ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Hazard Functions ◽  
Independent Variables ◽  
Income Inequalities

The aim of this research is to decompose the gender pay gap in Poland along its distribution, based on the European Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) in 2014. The possibility of estimating conditional cumulative distribution function using a flexible hazards models with independent variables was applied in the analysis. The used method allowed to explain the structure of income inequalities between men and women and to infer the influence of individual person's characteristics on the observed differences. It was recognised that the increase in gender inequalities was accompanied by the income growth. The size and share of the unexplained by the model part grew with the amount of income, while the elucidated one was characterised by negative values. It proves that women share characteristics that are more preferred by employers.

scholarly journals El principio comunitario de no discriminación retributiva por razón de género = The Community principle of non wage discrimination because of gender

2017 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 9
Author(s):  
María del Mar Crespi
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Wage Discrimination ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
The European Union ◽  
European Union Law ◽  
Equal Pay ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Legal Perspective ◽  
El Sistema ◽  
Las Mujeres

Resumen: El principio comunitario de no discriminación retributiva por razón de género es el instrumento por el que se ha tratado de erradicar en el seno de la Unión Europea la discriminación salarial que sufren las mujeres. Dicha discriminación se refleja claramente en la brecha salarial y es sólo una manifestación más de la desigualdad de género existente en el ámbito laboral. El principio ha sufrido una interesante evolución desde su nacimiento con la creación de la Comunidad Europea que refleja la creciente preocupación de ésta por los derechos humanos y la justicia social. El propósito de éste estudio es ofrecer una visión sintética pero completa del estado de la cuestión desde una perspectiva eminentemente jurídica. Por ello, se explica el funcionamiento del principio y los conceptos que lo componen, prestando especial atención a los problemas que plantea su aplicación en la práctica jurídica y las últimas novedades incorporadas por la jurisprudencia del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea. También se expone brevemente el sistema de garantías frente a la discriminación que la normativa europea impone a los Estados miembros. Teniendo en cuenta los datos, es evidente que pese a los esfuerzos de las Instituciones Europeas el problema persiste, ello obliga a un análisis de las deficiencias técnicas de la regulación actual, sus posibles reformas, así como nuevas vías de acción que pudiesen coadyuvar a la solución definitiva. Palabras clave: Derecho de la Unión Europea, brecha salarial, discriminación retributiva, principio de igualdad entre mujeres y hombres, igualdad salarial. Abstract: The Community principle of non-wage discrimination because of gender is the tool through which the European Union has tried to eradicate the pay discrimination suffered by women. This discrimination is clearly reflected by the gender pay gap and is only one more example of the gender inequality existing in the work sphere. The principle has suffered an interesting evolution since its birth with the foundation of the European Union, and it shows its increasing interest towards human rights and social justice. The purpose of this study is to show a summary but complete vision of the state of play from an eminently legal perspective. Therefore, it explains how the principle works, and the main concepts that compose it, paying special attention to the issues arisen in its practical application and to the last developments incorporated by the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union. The system of guarantees imposed by the European Union to the member states is also briefly exposed. Considering the statistics, it is clear that despite of the European Institution’s efforts the problem remains, so it is obviously necessary to analyse the deficiencies of the current regulation and the possible changes, as well as new ways that could help reaching the final solution. Keywords: European Union Law, gender pay gap, wage discrimination, principle of equal pay between women and men, pay equality. doi: https://doi.org/10.20318/femeris.2017.3545

scholarly journals The gender pay gap and women in managerial positions: V4 countries in the light of the European Union

2020 ◽  
Vol 23 (4) ◽  
pp. 81-90
Author(s):  
Agnieszka Kłysik-Uryszek
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Empirical Investigation ◽  
The Other ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Gender Parity ◽  
Managerial Positions ◽  
And Gender ◽  
Visegrad Group

This research investigates the level of the gender pay gap and gender parity in the Visegrad Group countries in light of the changes that took place in the whole EU during the last decade. The following hypotheses accompany the research objective: (1) the level of the gender pay gap diminished significantly over the last decade in the V4 economies; (2) the V4 countries are following a path to achieve gender parity. Data were taken from Eurostat. The pay gap and the managerial occupations indicators were used to verify the research hypotheses. The empirical investigation did not let us reject the first hypothesis for Poland only. However, it should be rejected for the other V4 economies. In addition, the second hypothesis should be rejected.

scholarly journals Gender pay gap in salary bands among employees in the formal sector of South Africa

2018 ◽  
Vol 16 ◽  
Author(s):  
Adeboye M. Adelekan ◽  
Mark H.R. Bussin
Keyword(s):  
Top Management ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
Formal Sector ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Representation Of Women ◽  
Similar Work ◽  
The Status ◽  
Managerial Implications ◽  
Value Add

Orientation: The gender pay gap is a worldwide challenge that has persisted despite political will and interventions. Comparably qualified women performing similar work as men continue to earn less. There are conflicting views in the literature regarding the status of the gender pay gap.Research purpose: The purpose of the study was to determine status of the gender pay gap among employees in the same salary band and to establish whether men and women receive similar pay for similar work in the study population.Motivation for study: The status of the gender pay gap would establish the progress made towards closing the gap and guide necessary adjustments to interventions.Research approach/design and method: A quantitative analysis was conducted on the pay information of 217 902 employees collected in a survey from over 700 companies, across 10 job families and 6 industries.Main findings: Men’s pay was consistently higher than that of women in all salary bands except at the 75th and 95th percentile in sub-bands B-lower and B-upper and 25th percentile in sub-band E-upper. The gender pay gap ranged from 8% in band A to 27.1% in sub-band F-upper. The gaps observed in the salary bands were statistically significant (p < 0.0001) except in sub-band E-upper, F-lower and F-upper, indicating convergence towards similar pay for similar work at senior to top management levels. Women were under-represented in all salary bands with the lowest presence in band F, especially sub-band F-upper. Gender, race, job family and industry have a significant effect on income earned in the study sample.Practical/managerial implications: Government’s efforts seemed to have produced minimal results as women are represented in all job families, industries and salary bands. The pay of men and women in senior and top management levels was similar. However, more still needs to be done to achieve the 50% target representation of women in senior management and close the gap at all levels.Contribution/value-add: The number of women at management levels is still very low when compared to their male counterparts. However, the gender pay gap in senior to top management positions are converging towards similar pay for work of similar value.

scholarly journals VAT Efficiency—A Discussion on the VAT System in the European Union

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (9) ◽  
pp. 4768
Author(s):  
Anna Kowal ◽  
Grzegorz Przekota
Keyword(s):  
European Union ◽  
Tax Evasion ◽  
Value Added ◽  
Square Function ◽  
The European Union ◽  
Tax System ◽  
Aggregated Data ◽  
Tax Gap ◽  
Standard Rate ◽  
Tax Fraud

The effectiveness of the tax system can be analysed in various ways. According to the authors one of manifestations of such effectiveness is resistance to tax evasion. This phenomenon is influenced by multiple factors, with few being the level of VAT rates and the number of rates in force in the country concerned. The aim of the considerations is therefore to analyse how the standard VAT rate as well as the number of rates affect the effectiveness of this tax. The research was based on a literature query in the field of value added tax in the European Union. In addition, the problem of tax evasion was indicated and the aggregated data on the size of the tax gap in the Member States were presented. Then, there are the results of the research for 27 European Union countries for 2011–2019. The efficiency of VAT collection was modelled using square function, determining the significance of the parameters of this function, as well as the value of abscissa, which made it possible to group the countries based on how they maintained the efficiency of VAT collection over the analysed period of time. The final part of the study concentrates on the relationship between the efficiency of tax collection and the amount of both the basic rate and the number of rates. The conclusions of the research are as follows: a tax system with a small number of reduced rates, and preferably with one relatively low standard rate, is the system least susceptible to tax fraud. The research also shows a positive correlation between the value of the basic VAT rate along with the number of preferential rates and the scale of the tax gap, i.e., in countries with a higher standard VAT rate and a greater number of preferential rates, the tax gap is greater. The study will enable further investigation into the strategy of determining the optimal VAT rate and the process of its unification. Proposed changes may contribute to increasing the efficiency of VAT administration in EU countries, reducing the shadow economy, tax fraud and positively influencing economic growth.

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