The level of socio-economic development of regions in Poland

The development of regions within one country is an uneven process. States seek to reduce internal inequalities between particular regions through the implementation of appropriate economic policies, as is the case of Poland. The aim of the study is to evaluate the level of socio-economic development of regions in Poland (voivodships) in the years 2013– 2019. For this purpose, a taxonomic analysis based on Hellwig’s development measure was conducted and the Euclidean distance was applied to assess the difference between the obtained pattern and particular voivodships. On the basis of data provided by the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland and through linear ordering, two rankings of voivodships were created: one reflecting their socio-economic development excluding environmental protection aspects and the other focusing solely on the issue of environmental protection. Low values of the coefficient of variation relating to a part of the analysed variables indicated that the development level of voivodships in the analysed period is in many respects very similar. The variables crucial for determining the differences between voivodships show that Mazowieckie Voivodship occupies high positions in both rankings (and is the leader in the ranking of socio-economic development excluding environmental protection aspects), while Warmińsko-Mazurskie Voivodship is characterised by a low level of development illustrated by both rankings.

Yields variability as a determinant of production risk in agriculture

Agricultural activity is exposed to a number of adverse external factors known as production risks, which affect the quantity and value of production. One of the measures of production risk assessment in crops production is yields variability. The aim of the study is to determine the scope of the variability of the yields of selected agricultural crops on the basis of various sources of data covering the years 2015–2019. The study uses aggregated official statistics data compiled by Statistics Poland, published in the Statistical Yearbook of Agriculture, and individual data from the Polish Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN), which takes into account commercial farms. The analysis of the differences in crops variability determined on the basis of different sources of information was carried out using basic statistical parameters: the arithmetic mean, standard deviation and the coefficient of variation. The research shows that the variability of yields in Poland depends not only on the type of crops, but also on the location of the production. Moreover, it indicates a greater stability of crops production among commercial farms when compared with farms in general. The comparison of the values of the coefficient of variation calculated from individual data with the values calculated on the basis of the average yields indicates fundamental differences which should be taken into account when applying the variation coefficient to assess production risk and, consequently, to optimise insurance tools.

Labour market inequalities across disability statuses, sex and age

The paper analyses basic issues relating to labour market discrimination experienced by persons with disabilities, which is reflected in the different levels of employment and unemployment of this group of people in relation to the entire population. Therefore, the aim of the study is to identify the inequality in the labour market with respect to the disability status, sex and age, and to assess the stability of this relation over time. The research covers the period from 2001 to 2018 and was based on the 2002 and 2011 Census and the Labour Force Survey (LFS) data. The examination of the inequalities in economic activity between people with disabilities and the entire population while taking into account both sex and age was based on the analysis of census data. The stability of this relation was verified on the basis of LFS data, which provide information on employment and unemployment among persons with disabilities in general or separately by sex or age. The constructed patterns were used to estimate the economic activity of people with disabilities in 2011. The paper used methods of demographic analysis, comparative statistics, time series, the verification of statistical hypotheses and statistical estimation. Clear differences concern men aged 35–39 and women aged 40–49. The employment rate for men with disabilities is three times lower, and for women 2.5 times lower than among the whole population. The relationship between employment rates was essentially constant over the 2001–2018 period. An upward trend was observed in the case of the unemployment rate. 2008 saw a clear increase in the disproportion in relation to the trend. The unemployment rate among persons with disabilities compared to the entire population was higher for men by an average of 60% and by 50% for women.

Barriers to the process of the internationalisation of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises

Enterprises entering foreign markets are confronted with many barriers of a different nature, depending on the industry sector, offered products, the target market and other factors. The level of difficulty in overcoming a given barrier may also vary. The aim of the study was to identify and discuss the internal and external barriers experienced by micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) in Podkarpackie Voivodship in their process of internationalisation and to assess the perceived level of the related difficulties. The article provides a synthetic review of domestic and foreign scientific publications on the subject. The Kruskal- Wallis test was used and a multiple comparison analysis was performed to evaluate the significance of the differences in the perceived level of difficulties relating to the occurrence of barriers. The authors’ research of 194 SMEs with foreign capital, carried out in Podkarpackie Voivodship in the second half of 2019, demonstrated that among the most serious barriers to internationalisation are limitations and difficulties arising from the external environment which the enterprises operate in. SMEs also recognised some internal barriers, although their negative impact on the process of internationalisation seemed to be of less importance than that resulting from external constraints.

Comparison of prices and consumer price indices: traditional data collection and alternative data sources

One of the major challenges official statistics is faced with in the 21st century is the use of alternative sources of price data in order to modernise consumer price statistics and, as a result, to improve the accuracy and reliability of inflation data. Data collecting based on the traditional method encountered numerous difficulties caused by COVID-19 (distance-keeping restrictions limiting price collectors’ fieldwork, closures of points of sale). As a consequence, the work on alternative data sources intensified. The article presents the results of an experimental study involving the use of prices collected by means of the traditional method (by price collectors), and scanner and web scraped data from one of the retail chains operating in Poland. The aim of the study was to investigate the occurrence of differences in prices and price indices of selected food products and to estimate them, using the traditional method and alternative data sources, i.e. scanner and web scraped data. An additional goal was set to identify sourcebased reasons for these differences. The empirical study covered the period of February and March 2021. The results based on data from different sources were compared using both graphical methods (histograms, box plots) and the calculation of elementary price indices according to the Dutot, Carli and Jevons formulas. The findings revealed certain, sometimes serious discrepancies in the distributions of prices obtained from various data sources, which suggests that the application of scanner and web scraped data may lead to the over- and understating of price indices obtained via the traditional method. The article also discusses the main methodological aspects of obtaining and applying data from alternative sources, and indicates the probable causes of the differences observed both in distributions of product prices and in monthly price indices calculated using data from various sources.

Measurement and determinants of creative capital in Europe

One of the important factors influencing the development and competitiveness of economies is creative capital. It differs significantly among European countries, which has an influence on income and quality of life. The aim of the research discussed in this article is to determine the level of creative capital in Europe and to identify its determinants. The starting point of the analysis is the 3T theory (talent, technology, tolerance), formulated by Richard Florida, and the concept of a creativity index, which derives from the theory. The concept does not define creative capital precisely, therefore, this article proposes its measures based on statistical data obtained from Eurostat and a synthetic measure of creative capital. Data relating to European countries and covering the period of 2011–2018 were used. Moreover, an attempt was made to determine the level of creative capital by means of socio-economic factors (e.g. the number of people working in creative professions, the structure of the population by age and income, and expenditure on culture). Empirical analyses indicate significant differences in the level of creative capital in Europe. This is mainly influenced by the level of the wealth of economies and the number of people working in creative occupations, while cultural expenditure is less important for the development of creative capital.

Principal components of innovation performance in European Union countries

Innovation is one of the main determinants of economic development. Innovative activity is very complex, thus difficult to measure. The complexity of the phenomenon poses a great challenge for researchers to understand its determinants. The article focuses on the problem of innovation-related geographical disparities among European Union countries. Moreover, it analyses the principal components of innovation determined on the basis of the European Innovation Scoreboard (EIS) dimensions. The aim of the paper is to identify the principal components of the innovation index which differentiate countries by analysing the structure of the correlation between its components. All calculations were based on indicators included in the EIS 2020 Database, containing data from the years 2012–2019. A comparative analysis of the studied countries’ innovation performance was carried out, based on the principal component analysis (PCA) method, with the purpose of finding the uncorrelated principal components of innovation which differentiate the studied countries. The results were achieved by reducing a 10-dimensional data set to a 2-dimensional one, for a simpler interpretation. The first principal component (PC1) consisted of the human resources, attractive research systems, and finance and support dimensions (understood as academia and finance). The second principal component (PC2), involving the employment impacts and linkages dimensions, was interpreted as business-related. PC1 and PC2 jointly explained 68% of the observed variance, and similar results were obtained for the 27 detailed indicators outlined in the EIS. We can therefore assume that we have an accurate representation of the information contained in the EIS data, which allows for an alternative assessment and ranking of innovation performance. The proposed simplified index, described in a 2-dimensional space, based on PC1 and PC2, makes it possible to group countries in a new way, according to their level of innovation, which offers a wide range of application, e.g. PC1 captures geographic disparities in innovation corresponding to the division between the old and new EU member states.

The diversity and spatial polarisation of own incomes of the Polish gminas

Own incomes are considered one of the most important sources of financing for local governments in Poland. Although own incomes have been the subject of numerous analyses, extensive research focusing on their spatial aspect is rarely conducted. This article aims to identify the changes in the spatial diversification and polarisation of gminas (communes’) own incomes. Data from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland, the National Bank of Poland and the World Bank were used. The analysis covered the years 1995–2019. The study used the global spatial autocorrelation coefficient and the LISA method to identify the process of spatial dependence and to determine the degree of spatial polarisation. The Gini coefficient was applied to assess the level of diversity. The results of the analysis confirmed that an increasing spatial autocorrelation occurred in the studied period, leading to the spatial polarisation of the Polish gminas in terms of their own incomes. Gminas with a high level of own income formed spatial clusters within large urban agglomerations, in regions where natural resources were exploited, along the western border and the coastal belt. The findings show that the area of these clusters was expanding. On the other hand, low-own-income gminas were located in eastern and south-eastern Poland. The analysis has not confirmed that the dynamics of the gross domestic product or the level of inequality in gminas’ own income per capita had any effect on the changes in the spatial autocorrelation coefficient, nor, consequently, on the process of spatial polarisation.

The situation of women on the Polish labour market compared to the situation of men

Despite the many steps taken towards gender equality, women's situation on the labour market is worse than the respective situation of men. Women receive lower remuneration and are offered limited promotion opportunities. The aim of the research described in the paper is to compare the situation of men and women on the labour market and to indicate the factors which determine it. The study is based on data from the Labour Force Survey (Badanie Aktywności Ekonomicznej Ludności – BAEL) covering the years 2010–2018. The article presents an analysis of the employment and unemployment rates and estimates showing the relative chances of the outflow from employment and unemployment for both men and women. The results of the analyses indicated an upward trend in the employment in the given period, although the employment rate was lower for women than for men in all the featured sections. Moreover, women faced a greater risk of unemployment than men, despite the fact that the gap between the unemployment rates for men and women narrowed in the years 2015–2018. The highest probability of job loss and outflow to unemployment was observed among women aged 15–24 and 25–34, while the lowest among women with tertiary education.

Excess mortality in Poland during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic began in China in November 2019, and spread to most countries around the world in the early 2020, causing a large increase in deaths. The aim of the study described in this paper is to estimate and analyse the geographical and temporal variations in excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 in Poland and its regions. The study took into consideration variables such as sex, age and the stage of the pandemic in correlation with the reported number of COVID-19 deaths and the reported number of SARS-CoV-2 virus infections. The standard weekly mortality rate in Poland in 2020 was calculated using the method of time series analysis taking into account weekly seasonal fluctuations in the mortality rate throughout the year, indicated with data reported by registry offices and published by Statistics Poland. The obtained results showed that in 2020, there were approximately 71,000 deaths above the standard number in Poland, most of which, i.e. about 91%, were the deaths of people aged 60 and over. Out of them, only less than 30,000 deaths were reported as deaths caused by COVID-19, which was only about 41% of all excess deaths in this period. The number of excess deaths peaked in the 45th week of 2020, which was the time when the largest number of cases of COVID-19 infection were reported, and not when the largest number of deaths from COVID-19 occurred (which was three weeks later). However, it has not been established yet whether the reason for this situation was an imperfect way of determining the causes of deaths at the beginning of the pandemic, or the excessive burden hospitals were subjected to that caused the increase in deaths from other causes.