Historical and Sociolinguistic Background

2020 ◽  
pp. 6-26
Author(s):  
Wilson McLeod
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Language Shift ◽  
Historical Overview ◽  
Scale Removal ◽  
12Th Century ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Different Parts

This chapter gives a historical overview of Gaelic in Scotland, including an analysis of its spread to different parts of Scotland in the Middle Ages and the trajectory of demographic decline and language shift since the 18th century. Gaelic became the language of the first Scottish monarchy (the kingdom of Alba) and was widely spoken across Scotland, but then began to decline in the 12th century and became confined to the mountainous northwest of the country (the Highlands). The language became stigmatised as a language of barbarism and the Gaelic community was economically and socially marginalised. Traditional Gaelic society was shattered in the 18th century, with the repression following the Battle of Culloden (1746), followed by the Highland Clearances of the 19th century, which involved large-scale removal of population. Since the 18th century there has been steady language shift in the Highlands, now reaching the last Gaelic communities. The future of Gaelic as a community language has become very uncertain.

scholarly journals Locating Hidden Elements in Walls of Cultural Heritage Buildings by Using Infrared Thermography

Buildings ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 9 (2) ◽  
pp. 32 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hrvoje Glavaš ◽  
Marijana Hadzima-Nyarko ◽  
Ivana Haničar Buljan ◽  
Tomislav Barić
Keyword(s):  
Infrared Thermography ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Building Envelope ◽  
Step Heating ◽  
Heritage Buildings ◽  
Nondestructive Testing Method ◽  
Paint Removal ◽  
The 19Th Century

The structure of Tvrđa and its buildings date back to the Middle Ages. Tvrđa represents the Old Town of the city of Osijek and the best-preserved and largest ensemble of Baroque buildings in Croatia. After the withdrawal of the Ottomans in 1687, during the 18th century, the Austro-Hungarian administration systematically formed a new fortification system, regulated streets and squares and built a large number of military objects. Tvrđa took its present form in the 19th century and has kept it since then. Investigating the historical development of individual buildings, in addition to archival sources and existing architectural documentation, the obvious source of information are the buildings themselves. The aim of this paper is to explore the possibilities of using infrared thermography to find structural elements and hidden openings in historic buildings in Osijek’s Tvrđa. This paper describes the exploration of the 18th century openings on the facades of the former Kostić houses. The facades were bricked into the walls in the 19th century because houses were reused and their purposes changed from commercial to residential. Infrared thermography is often a starting, nondestructive testing method (NDT) for building analyses. This paper presents thermographic analyses of two buildings. The analyses were carried out in December 2017 and January 2018. Using a steady-state thermographic analysis of a building envelope as the first step, the audit was continued with step heating (SH) of an interest point where changes in a thermal pattern were expected due to additional bricking. Heat flux was generated by the usage of a heat gun for paint removal.

Extinction

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark V. Barrow
Keyword(s):  
Endangered Species ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Wildlife Conservation ◽  
Captive Breeding ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Apex Predators ◽  
Biodiversity Crisis ◽  
Extinction Events ◽  
The 19Th Century

The prospect of extinction, the complete loss of a species or other group of organisms, has long provoked strong responses. Until the turn of the 18th century, deeply held and widely shared beliefs about the order of nature led to a firm rejection of the possibility that species could entirely vanish. During the 19th century, however, resistance to the idea of extinction gave way to widespread acceptance following the discovery of the fossil remains of numerous previously unknown forms and direct experience with contemporary human-driven decline and the destruction of several species. In an effort to stem continued loss, at the turn of the 19th century, naturalists, conservationists, and sportsmen developed arguments for preventing extinction, created wildlife conservation organizations, lobbied for early protective laws and treaties, pushed for the first government-sponsored parks and refuges, and experimented with captive breeding. In the first half of the 20th century, scientists began systematically gathering more data about the problem through global inventories of endangered species and the first life-history and ecological studies of those species. The second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries have been characterized both by accelerating threats to the world’s biota and greater attention to the problem of extinction. Powerful new laws, like the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973, have been enacted and numerous international agreements negotiated in an attempt to address the issue. Despite considerable effort, scientists remain fearful that the current rate of species loss is similar to that experienced during the five great mass extinction events identified in the fossil record, leading to declarations that the world is facing a biodiversity crisis. Responding to this crisis, often referred to as the sixth extinction, scientists have launched a new interdisciplinary, mission-oriented discipline, conservation biology, that seeks not just to understand but also to reverse biota loss. Scientists and conservationists have also developed controversial new approaches to the growing problem of extinction: rewilding, which involves establishing expansive core reserves that are connected with migratory corridors and that include populations of apex predators, and de-extinction, which uses genetic engineering techniques in a bid to resurrect lost species. Even with the development of new knowledge and new tools that seek to reverse large-scale species decline, a new and particularly imposing danger, climate change, looms on the horizon, threatening to undermine those efforts.

scholarly journals Reindeer pastoralism in Sweden 1550-1950

Rangifer ◽  
2007 ◽  
Vol 27 (3) ◽  
pp. 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lennart Lundmark
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
State Intervention ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Detailed Knowledge ◽  
Reindeer Herding ◽  
The North ◽  
Starting Point ◽  
The 19Th Century

In the middle of the 16th century we get the first opportunity to a more detailed knowledge of reindeerpastoralism in Sweden. At that time the Sami lived in a hunter-gatherer economy. A family had in average about 10-20 domesticated reindeer, mainly used for transport. They could also be milked and used as decoys when hunting wild reindeer. During late 16th century the Swedish state and merchants bought large amounts of fur from the Sami. The common payment was butter and flour. This created a new prosperity, which lead to a considerable increase in population in Swedish Lapland. The population became too large for a hunter-gatherer economy. A crisis in early 17th century was the starting point for the transition to a large-scale nomadic reindeer pastoralism. Up to the middle of the 18th century intensive reindeer pastoralism was successful. But the pastoralism became gradually too intensive and diseases started to spread when the herds were kept too densely crowded for milking in summertime. During the first decades of the 19th century reindeer pastoralism in Sweden went through a major crisis. The number of reindeer herding mountain-Sami decreased considerably, mainly because they went to live permanently along the Norwegian coastline. Intensive reindeer pastoralism started to give way for extensive herding towards the end of the 19th century. In the north of Sweden influences from the Kautokeino Sami were an important factor, in the south extensive reindeer herding started to expand when the market for meat came closer to the Sami. During the 1920s the milking of reindeer ceased in Sweden, except in a few families. At that time Sami families from the north had been removed southwards. They further demonstrated the superiority of extensive herding to the Sami in mid- and southern Lapland. Reindeer pastoralism is basically a system of interaction between man and animal, but it has been heavily influenced by market forces and state intervention during hundreds of years. To a large extent these long-term external influences have made reindeer pastoralism what it is today. That aspect should not be overlooked when assessing the future prospects of reindeer pastoralism in Scandinavia.Renskötseln i Sverige 1550-1950Abstract in Swedish / Sammanfattning: Först vid mitten av 1500-talet finns det källmaterial som ger oss en tämligen detaljerad bild av renskötseln i Sverige. Vid den tiden levde samerna i en jakt- , fiske- och samlarekonomi. En familj hade normalt 10-20 renar som främst utnyttjades vid transporter. Tamrenarna kunde också mjölkas och fungera som lockdjur vid vildrensjakt. Under senare delen av 1500-talet köpte svenska staten och handelsmän stora mängder pälsverk av samerna. Den vanligaste betalningen var smör och mjöl. Detta skapade ett välstånd som ledde till en betydande folkökning i svenska lappmarken. Befolkningen blev för stor för att rymmas inom ramarna för en jaktochfiskeekonomi. En kris i början av 1600-talet blev startpunkten för övergången till en storskalig rennomadism.Fram till mitten av 1700-talet var den intensiva renskötseln framgångsrik. Men renskötseln blev efterhand alltför intensiv. Under senare delen av 1700-talet började det spridas sjukdomar i de tätt sammanhållna hjordarna. De första decennierna av 1800-talet innebar en allvarlig kris i renskötseln. Antalet renskötande fjällsamer minskade kraftigt, främst genom utvandring till norska kusten. Den intensiva renskötseln med mjölkning av renarna började ersättas av en extensiv renskötsel inriktad på köttproduktion de sista decennierna av 1800-talet. I norr var naturförhållandena och influenser från Kautokeino-samerna en viktig faktor, i söder utvecklades renskötseln i extensiv riktning främst därför att marknaden för renkött kom närmare renskötarna. Under 1920-talet upphörde mjölkningen av renar i Sverige, utom i några enstaka familjer. Då hade förflyttningarna av samer från nordligaste Sverige söderut påskyndat utvecklingen och ytterligare markerat den extensiva renskötselteknikensöverlägsenhet. Tamrenskötsel är ett samspel mellan människa och djur, men det är inte bara en fråga om renskötaren och hans hjord. Externa marknadsfaktorer, beskattning och lagstiftning har haft ett betydandeinflytande på renskötselns utveckling under hundratals år. De har till stor del format renskötseln till vad den är idag. Detta bör beaktas när man gör bedömningar av renskötselns framtid. 

scholarly journals In the “Mirror” of Press: Preparation and Conduct of the First “Russian Season” by S. P. Diaghilev (1906)

2020 ◽  
Vol 19 (6) ◽  
pp. 48-58
Author(s):  
Natalia D. Melnik
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Russian Art ◽  
The Public ◽  
Cultural Activities ◽  
Russian Symbolism ◽  
The Press ◽  
The 19Th Century

Purpose. The purpose of this study is to examine the coverage in the Russian and foreign press the preparation and conduct of the first Russian season in Paris (then in Berlin) by S. P. Diaghilev in 1906, which became the beginning of implementation of large-scale activities of impresario in Western Europe, whose main objective was the promotion of almost unknown at the time for the Europeans the Russian art. Results. Quoting the correspondence of artists-friends of Diaghilev, memoirs of contemporaries, publications in the press, as well as modern research, allows the author to assert that the basis of this cultural project of the impresario was the exhibition “Two centuries of Russian painting and sculpture”, where he exhibited ancient Russian icons, works of Russian artists of the 18th century – the first half of the 19th century, as well as paintings by members of the art Association “World of Art” who were the representatives of Russian symbolism and modernism. Conclusion. The studied materials indicate that the success of the first Russian season set the stage for further cultural activities to acquaint Western Europe with a variety of achievements of Russian art and their success among critics and the public.

scholarly journals LANSKAP PERTAMBANGAN ORANG CINA DI MONTERADO, KALIMANTAN BARAT

2017 ◽  
Vol 29 (1) ◽  
pp. 1
Author(s):  
Ida Bagus Putu Prajna Yogi
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Cultural Landscape ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Gold Mining ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Mining Activities ◽  
Chinese People ◽  
West Kalimantan ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Early 18Th Century

The arrival of Chinese People on a large scale in the early 18th century in West Kalimantan due to the presence of a large gold potential in the area. Monterado is one of the gold mining landscape in West Kalimantan. This cultural landscape shows the activity of big mining and technology owned by the Chinese miners. In addition to the ability to mine, it turns out the Chinese also formed an organization called "kongsi" to support the mining activities. Settlements and cities that grew as a result of gold mining Monterado appear in coastal areas, which is currently a Singkawang. The dissolution of the kongsi in Monterado in the middle of the 19th century, led to stop mining activities in Monterado Similarly, for mining authority was taken over by the colonial, but the miners did not agree with it and choose to stop mining.Kedatangan orang Cina di Kalimantan Barat dalam sekala besar terjadi pada abad ke 18 Masehi, dikarenakan adanya potensi emas di wilayah tersebut. Monterado adalah salah satu lanskap pertambangan emas terbesar di Kalimantan Barat. Lanskap budaya tersebut menunjukan aktifitas pertambangan yang besar dan teknologi yang dimiliki oleh para penambang Cina pada saat itu. Selain kemampuan untuk tambang, ternyata China juga membentuk sebuah organisasi yang disebut "kongsi" untuk mendukung kegiatan pertambangan. Pemukiman dan kota-kota yang tumbuh sebagai pengaruh dari pertambangan emas Monterado muncul di wilayah pesisir, yang saat ini menjadi Kota Singkawang. Data mengenai permukiman di lokasi tambang sangat minim, hal tersebut diperkirakan masyarakat tambang lebih memilih untuk menetap di daerah pelabuhan. Namun, beberapa kuburan Cina dan sisa tiang rumah ditemukan di lokasi tambang. Pembubaran kongsi di Monterado di pertengahan abad ke-19 menyebabkan berhentinya kegiatan pertambangan di lokasi tersebut. Setelah pertambangan diambil alih oleh pemerintah Belanda para penambang emas Cina tetap memilih untuk tidak menambang lagi sebab kegiatan menambang emas tersebut dianggap sudah tidak menguntungkan.

Slavery in New England

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wendy Warren
Keyword(s):  
Native Americans ◽  
New England ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Rhode Island ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Slave Trade ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
African Descent ◽  
Chattel Slavery ◽  
The 19Th Century

In popular imagination, the history of chattel slavery in North America is largely linked to the southeastern quarter of the continent, and focused on the 19th century. But the slave trade and institution of chattel slavery functioned in other regions and at other times. One region that has drawn much scholarly attention is New England; the first records of enslaved Africans in that region (in the Massachusetts Bay Colony) appear in 1638, and the region’s enslaved African population grew steadily throughout that century and well into the 18th. Numbering less than two thousand in 1700, there were more than fifteen thousand people of African descent, both free and enslaved, in the region by 1770. Neither the slave trade to New England nor the institution of slavery itself, consisted only of Africans and people of African descent; historians have increasingly paid attention to the ways that commodified enslavement ensnared Native Americans, who worked as unfree labor in the region and were also exported to the West Indies and elsewhere as chattel slaves in the Atlantic slave trade. Indeed, studies of slavery in New England, by focusing on a region seemingly relatively marginal to the greater Atlantic economy and one mostly lacking (save a few areas of Rhode Island) a stereotypical plantation economy, have usefully emphasized the various ways that chattel slavery could be experienced, and have also emphasized the broad reach of Atlantic racial hierarchies and labor systems. Slavery in New England was not the monocrop plantation slavery typical of the 19th-century US South; enslaved people in New England worked in a more varied labor system. The small holdings of New England also meant the slave market worked differently than the antebellum South. Enslaved women in New England were valued differently than in other regions; for example, their reproductive capacities meant less than they would in societies with large-scale holdings of enslaved people. Enslaved children could be a liability rather than an investment. Emancipation in the region was truly gradual: though laws were passed in the late 18th century that sought to outlaw slavery, enslaved people were still legally held in New England as late as the 1840s.

Forward-Looking Retrospection: Enharmonicism in the Classical Era

2002 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 332-373 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paula Telesco
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Central Place ◽  
The Other ◽  
Compositional Techniques ◽  
The Past ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Early 18Th Century ◽  
Tonal System

Enharmonicism steps to the fore only occasionally in 18th-century music. Indeed, over the past two centuries, it has been commonly assumed that it was invoked only when a special affect demanded it (as in the much-discussed "Dance of the Furies" from Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie). But a survey of 18th-century music refutes this perception and reveals that the enharmonicism of the 18th century can be broadly defined as belonging to one of two categories: simultaneous or immediate enharmonicism, and retrospective enharmonicism. Most early 18th-century examples restrict their usage to the simultaneous/immediate type, which consists of reinterpretations of enharmonic pivot chords. Retrospective enharmonicism, on the other hand, is less common than immediate enharmonicism but is remarkable because it presages the expansion of the diatonic tonal system into the chromatic tonal system of the 19th century. Retrospective enharmonicism does not involve the reinterpretation of an enharmonic pivot chord, nor is a reinterpretation perceived at any one point; it becomes clear only in retrospect that one must have occurred. Rather than a negation of some resolution tendency, as happens in the reinterpretation of a dominant seventh as an augmented sixth, there is a (typically large-scale) trajectory away from some tonic which is eventually regained through the enharmonic door. Some note or chord is respelled as its enharmonic equivalent, but without any aural clue. Drastic key changes of the sort typically encountered in instances of retrospective enharmonicism are for the most part proscribed in the writings of such composers and theorists as Rameau, Kirnberger, Koch, Heinichen, and Vogler, all of whom wrote in detail about staying within an orbit of closely related keys and rarely going directly from one key to another too far away. Nevertheless, this type of enharmonicism was a recognized compositional resource which, though used relatively infrequently in the 18th century, came to occupy a more central place in the realm of available compositional techniques in the 19th century.

scholarly journals Sacked and Cursed? New data on the transition from the city-state to the Hittite capital Hattuša

2019 ◽  
Vol 3 ◽  
Author(s):  
Néhémie Strupler
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Central Anatolia ◽  
Know How ◽  
Modern Turkey ◽  
City State ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The City

When: Karum Period: First centuries of the 2nd millennium B.C. when Assyrian and Anatolian merchants took part in large-scale commercial exchanges between Aššur and central Anatolia. Most of the epigraphic finds come  from the 19th century BC, and the 18th century is less known. We don’t know how the commercial exchanges came to an end. Until the establishment of the administration at the Hittite capital Hattuša/Boğazköy (1650), there is a hiatus in the epigraphical records for more than a century. Who: Anitta, son of Pithana, an ambitious ruler who created one of the first Kingdom in Central Anatolian (modern Turkey) in the mid 18th century.Where: Boğazköy (modern name, in Central Anatolia) was a city called Ḫattuš and was an exchange place in the Anatolian Network of the Karum period. The site was selected as the capital of the Hittites around 1650 by Ḫattušili I, the first well attested Hittite King.

Alma Mater Studiorum. O genezie i początkach uniwersytetów

2017 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 9-22
Author(s):  
Marek Maciejewski
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Canon Law ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Ancient Greece ◽  
Roman Law ◽  
Institutions Of Higher Education ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
New Era ◽  
Conducting Research ◽  
The 19Th Century

The origin of universities reaches the period of Ancient Greece when philosophy (sophists, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, stoics and others) – the “Queen of sciences”, and the first institutions of higher education (among others, Plato’s Academy, Cassiodorus’ Vivarium, gymnasia) came into existence. Even before the new era, schools having the nature of universities existed also beyond European borders, including those in China and India. In the early Middle Ages, those types of schools functioned in Northern Africa and in the Near East (Baghdad, Cairo, Constantinople, cities of Southern Spain). The first university in the full meaning of the word was founded at the end of the 11th century in Bologna. It was based on a two-tiered education cycle. Following its creation, soon new universities – at first – in Italy, then (in the 12th and 13th century) in other European cities – were established. The author of the article describes their modes of operation, the methods of conducting research and organizing students’ education, the existing student traditions and customs. From the very beginning of the universities’ existence the study of law was part of their curricula, based primarily on the teaching of Roman law and – with time – the canon law. The rise of universities can be dated from the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modernity. In the 17th and 18th century they underwent a crisis which was successfully overcome at the end of the 19th century and throughout the following one.

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