Evaluating the Accuracy of Virtual Reality Trackers for Computing Spatiotemporal Gait Parameters

Ageing, disease, and injuries result in movement defects that affect daily life. Gait analysis is a vital tool for understanding and evaluating these movement dysfunctions. In recent years, the use of virtual reality (VR) to observe motion and offer augmented clinical care has increased. Although VR-based methodologies have shown benefits in improving gait functions, their validity against more traditional methods (e.g., cameras or instrumented walkways) is yet to be established. In this work, we propose a procedure aimed at testing the accuracy and viability of a VIVE Virtual Reality system for gait analysis. Seven young healthy subjects were asked to walk along an instrumented walkway while wearing VR trackers. Heel strike (HS) and toe off (TO) events were assessed using the VIVE system and the instrumented walkway, along with stride length (SL), stride time (ST), stride width (SW), stride velocity (SV), and stance/swing percentage (STC, SWC%). Results from the VR were compared with the instrumented walkway in terms of detection offset for time events and root mean square error (RMSE) for gait features. An absolute offset between VR- and walkway-based data of (15.3 ± 12.8) ms for HS, (17.6 ± 14.8) ms for TOs and an RMSE of 2.6 cm for SW, 2.0 cm for SL, 17.4 ms for ST, 2.2 m/s for SV, and 2.1% for stance and swing percentage were obtained. Our findings show VR-based systems can accurately monitor gait while also offering new perspectives for VR augmented analysis.

Download Full-text

Low-cost piezoelectric footswitch system for measuring temporal parameters during walking

International Journal of Engineering & Technology ◽

10.14419/ijet.v3i1.1733 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 3 (1) ◽

pp. 75 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Gustavo Balbinot ◽

Clarissa Pedrini Schuch ◽

Milton Antonio Zaro ◽

Marco Aur�lio Vaz

Keyword(s):

Gait Analysis ◽

Healthy Subjects ◽

Low Cost ◽

Heel Strike ◽

Altman Analysis ◽

Limits Of Agreement ◽

Validation Data ◽

Temporal Parameters ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Emerging And Developing Countries

Human walking is one of the most investigated biomechanical events, and gait analysis depends on accurate measurement of heel strike (HS) and toe off (TO). The purpose of this study was to construct and validate a low-cost footswitch system for the measurement of temporal gait parameters. Ten young healthy subjects participated of the validation and test of the footswitch system with two different footwear, Bland-Altman analysis showed 98% and 95% of validation data within the limits of agreement, for HS and TO respectively (mean difference of 16ms1ms and 20ms9ms) and the temporal parameters measured during treadmill walking at a speed of 4.5km.h-1 showed results similar to those found in the literature for normal walking. The outcomes confirm low CoVs for the instrumented athletic and instability shoe, respectively: (1.520.61)% and (1.900.73)% for contact time, (2.170.95)% and (2.570.95)% for balance time, (0.840.28)% and (1.120.53)% for stride time. The low-cost footswitch system described and validated in the present study has an important practical applicability, mostly for emerging and developing countries biomechanics labs. Keywords: Footswitch System, Gait Analysis, Locomotion, Low-Cost, Walk.

Download Full-text

Assessing the concurrent validity of a gait analysis system integrated into a smart walker in older adults with gait impairments

Clinical Rehabilitation ◽

10.1177/0269215519852143 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 33 (10) ◽

pp. 1682-1687 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Christian Werner ◽

Georgia Chalvatzaki ◽

Xanthi S Papageorgiou ◽

Costas S Tzafestas ◽

Jürgen M Bauer ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Gait Analysis ◽

Gait Speed ◽

Concurrent Validity ◽

Stride Length ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Stance Time ◽

Absolute Agreement ◽

Analysis System ◽

Smart Walker ◽

Gait Impairments

Objective: To assess the concurrent validity of a smart walker–integrated gait analysis system with the GAITRite® system for measuring spatiotemporal gait parameters in potential users of the smart walker. Design: Criterion standard validation study. Setting: Research laboratory in a geriatric hospital. Participants: Twenty-five older adults (⩾65 years) with gait impairments (habitual rollator use and/or gait speed <0.6 m/s) and no severe cognitive impairment (Mini-Mental State Examination ⩾17). Main measures: Stride, swing and stance time; stride length; and gait speed were simultaneously recorded using the smart walker–integrated gait analysis system and the GAITRite system while participants walked along a 7.8-m walkway with the smart walker. Concurrent criterion-related validity was assessed using the Bland–Altman method, percentage errors (acceptable if <30%), and intraclass correlation coefficients for consistency (ICC3,1) and absolute agreement (ICC2,1). Results: Bias for stride, swing and stance time ranged from −0.04 to 0.04 seconds, with acceptable percentage errors (8.7%–23.0%). Stride length and gait speed showed higher bias (meanbias (SD) = 0.20 (0.11) m; 0.19 (0.13) m/s) and not acceptable percentage errors (31.3%–42.3%). Limits of agreement were considerably narrower for temporal than for spatial-related gait parameters. All gait parameters showed good-to-excellent consistency (ICC3,1 = 0.72–0.97). Absolute agreement was good-to-excellent for temporal (ICC2,1 = 0.72–0.97) but only poor-to-fair for spatial-related gait parameters (ICC2,1 = 0.37–0.52). Conclusion: The smart walker–integrated gait analysis system has good concurrent validity with the GAITRite system for measuring temporal but not spatial-related gait parameters in potential end-users of the smart walker. Stride length and gait speed can be measured with good consistency, but with only limited absolute accuracy.

Download Full-text

Measures of dynamic balance during level walking in healthy adult subjects: Relationship with age, anthropometry and spatio-temporal gait parameters

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part H Journal of Engineering in Medicine ◽

10.1177/0954411919889237 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 234 (2) ◽

pp. 131-140 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Tiziana Lencioni ◽

Ilaria Carpinella ◽

Marco Rabuffetti ◽

Davide Cattaneo ◽

Maurizio Ferrarin

Keyword(s):

Motor Control ◽

Body Mass ◽

Healthy Subjects ◽

Normative Data ◽

Dynamic Balance ◽

Frontal Plane ◽

The Body ◽

Heel Strike ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Spatio Temporal

The maintenance of balance in dynamic conditions (e.g. during walking) is a necessary requirement that motor control must reach to avoid falls. However, this is a challenging situation, since to ensure the forward progression of the body, the center of mass must stay outside the base of support in the sagittal plane, and simultaneously remain inside the lateral borders in the frontal plane. Deviation from normative data of healthy subjects in dynamic balance could be used to quantify gait stability, fall risk and to provide hints for rehabilitation. However, normative data can be influenced by age, sex, anthropometry and spatio-temporal gait parameters, and such differences among subjects and leg side can hamper accurate assessment. The aims of this study were to investigate, in a group of healthy subjects: (1) possible asymmetry in dynamic balance maintenance strategies between leg sides, (2) the influence of age, sex and anthropometry on stability and (3) its dependence by spatio-temporal gait parameters. A total of 34 healthy subjects aged between 21 and 71 years, and ranging from 50.1 to 101.6 kg of body mass and from 155.0 to 188.9 cm of height were assessed on spatio-temporal and dynamic balance parameters (Foot Placement Estimator at heel strike and Margin of Stability at mid-stance) during self-selected gait. No parameter showed differences between legs. Dynamic balance parameters were influenced by sex, age, body mass and height mainly in the frontal plane. These measures were also correlated with gait speed and stride length both in the antero-posterior and medio-lateral directions. In addition also cadence and step width influenced the stability in the sagittal and frontal planes, respectively. The findings of this study confirm the symmetry in motor control of dynamic balance during self-selected gait in healthy subjects. Sex, anthropometry and spatio-temporal gait parameters have a significant effect on stability parameters, and this should be taken into account in dynamic balance studies.

Download Full-text

Vibration-based gait analysis via instrumented buildings

International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks ◽

10.1177/1550147719881608 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 15 (10) ◽

pp. 155014771988160

Author(s):

Ellis Kessler ◽

Vijaya VN Sriram Malladi ◽

Pablo A Tarazaga

Keyword(s):

Gait Analysis ◽

Heel Strike ◽

Vertical Acceleration ◽

Signal Energy ◽

Measurement Systems ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Invaluable Tool ◽

Diagnostic Approaches ◽

Instrumented Buildings

Gait analysis is an invaluable tool in diagnosing and monitoring human health. Current techniques often rely on specialists or expensive gait measurement systems. There is a clear space in the field for a simple, inexpensive, quantitative way to measure various gait parameters. This study investigates if useful quantitative gait parameters can be extracted from floor acceleration measurements produced by the input of foot falls. A total of 17 participants walked along a 115-ft-long hallway while underfloor mounted accelerometers measured the vertical acceleration of the floor. Signal-energy-based algorithms detect the heel strike of each step during trials. From the detected footsteps, gait parameters such as the average stride length, the time between steps, and the step signal energy were calculated. In this study, a single accelerometer was shown to be enough to detect steps over a 115-ft corridor. Distributions for all gait parameters measured were generated for each participant, showing a normal distribution with low standard deviation. The success of gait analysis using underfloor accelerometers presents possibilities in the widespread adaptation of gait measurements. The ease of installation and operation offers an opportunity to gather long-term gait measurements. Such data will augment current gait diagnostic approaches by filling the gaps between specialist visits.

Download Full-text

A Comparison of Algorithms for Body-Worn Sensor-Based Spatiotemporal Gait Parameters to the GAITRite Electronic Walkway

Journal of Applied Biomechanics ◽

10.1123/jab.28.3.349 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 28 (3) ◽

pp. 349-355 ◽

Cited By ~ 24

Author(s):

Barry R. Greene ◽

Timothy G. Foran ◽

Denise McGrath ◽

Emer P. Doheny ◽

Adrian Burns ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Concurrent Validity ◽

Stride Length ◽

Walking Speed ◽

Heel Strike ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Stance Time ◽

The Mean ◽

Walking Speeds ◽

Analysis Platform ◽

Good Agreement

This study compares the performance of algorithms for body-worn sensors used with a spatiotemporal gait analysis platform to the GAITRite electronic walkway. The mean error in detection time (true error) for heel strike and toe-off was 33.9 ± 10.4 ms and 3.8 ± 28.7 ms, respectively. The ICC for temporal parameters step, stride, swing and stance time was found to be greater than 0.84, indicating good agreement. Similarly, for spatial gait parameters—stride length and velocity—the ICC was found to be greater than 0.88. Results show good to excellent concurrent validity in spatiotemporal gait parameters, at three different walking speeds (best agreement observed at normal walking speed). The reported algorithms for body-worn sensors are comparable to the GAITRite electronic walkway for measurement of spatiotemporal gait parameters in healthy subjects.

Download Full-text

Experimental Gait Analysis to Study Stress Distribution of the Human Foot

Journal of Medical Engineering ◽

10.1155/2017/3432074 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 2017 ◽

pp. 1-13 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Vidya K. Nandikolla ◽

Robin Bochen ◽

Steven Meza ◽

Allan Garcia

Keyword(s):

Gait Analysis ◽

Measurement System ◽

Healthy Subjects ◽

Force Measurement ◽

Metatarsophalangeal Joint ◽

The Body ◽

Heel Strike ◽

Human Foot ◽

Running Activity ◽

Pressure Peak

Researchers and clinicians are increasingly using plantar pressure and force measurement system to evaluate foot functions. This research evaluates the quality and reliability of a Tekscan HR mat to study the plantar pressures and forces acting during walking, running, jumping, and standing of healthy subjects. The following regions of the foot were investigated: heel, mid foot, metatarsophalangeal joint, hallux, and the toes. The arches of both feet of the three healthy subjects in the gait analysis were presented which addresses the balancing issues of the body during locomotion. The results indicated that the peaks at the big toe (79.4 ± 8.5 N/cm2, p = 0.0001) were the maximum compared to forefoot (40.3 ± 3.3 N/cm2, p = 0.001), to midfoot (7.5 ± 1.3 N/cm2, p = 0.001), and to heel (27.8 ± 3.9 N/cm2, p = 0.0002) for jump activity. The running activity demonstrated similar results as jump where the maximum peak pressures were absorbed at the big toe region. The heel region during running (86.3 ± 12.6 N/cm2, p = 0.001) showed three times the pressure peak compared to the jump land (27.8 ± 3.9 N/cm2, p = 0.0002) activity. The measurement system proved to be highly capable of detecting heel strike and toe-off moments.

Download Full-text

Validation of a Sensor-Based Gait Analysis System with a Gold-Standard Motion Capture System in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease

Sensors ◽

10.3390/s21227680 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 21 (22) ◽

pp. 7680

Author(s):

Verena Jakob ◽

Arne Küderle ◽

Felix Kluge ◽

Jochen Klucken ◽

Bjoern M. Eskofier ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Gait Analysis ◽

Motion Capture ◽

Gold Standard ◽

Wearable Sensors ◽

Heel Strike ◽

Motion Capture System ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Analysis System

Digital technologies provide the opportunity to analyze gait patterns in patients with Parkinson’s Disease using wearable sensors in clinical settings and a home environment. Confirming the technical validity of inertial sensors with a 3D motion capture system is a necessary step for the clinical application of sensor-based gait analysis. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare gait parameters measured by a mobile sensor-based gait analysis system and a motion capture system as the gold standard. Gait parameters of 37 patients were compared between both systems after performing a standardized 5 × 10 m walking test by reliability analysis using intra-class correlation and Bland–Altman plots. Additionally, gait parameters of an age-matched healthy control group (n = 14) were compared to the Parkinson cohort. Gait parameters representing bradykinesia and short steps showed excellent reliability (ICC > 0.96). Shuffling gait parameters reached ICC > 0.82. In a stridewise synchronization, no differences were observed for gait speed, stride length, stride time, relative stance and swing time (p > 0.05). In contrast, heel strike, toe off and toe clearance significantly differed between both systems (p < 0.01). Both gait analysis systems distinguish Parkinson patients from controls. Our results indicate that wearable sensors generate valid gait parameters compared to the motion capture system and can consequently be used for clinically relevant gait recordings in flexible environments.

Download Full-text

Gait Analysis in Parkinson’s Disease: An Overview of the Most Accurate Markers for Diagnosis and Symptoms Monitoring

Sensors ◽

10.3390/s20123529 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 20 (12) ◽

pp. 3529 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Lazzaro di Biase ◽

Alessandro Di Santo ◽

Maria Letizia Caminiti ◽

Alfredo De Liso ◽

Syed Ahmar Shah ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Parkinson’S Disease ◽

Parkinson's Disease ◽

Gait Analysis ◽

Sensitivity And Specificity ◽

Healthy Subjects ◽

Large Scale ◽

Symptom Monitoring ◽

Gait Features ◽

Disease Stages

The aim of this review is to summarize that most relevant technologies used to evaluate gait features and the associated algorithms that have shown promise to aid diagnosis and symptom monitoring in Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients. We searched PubMed for studies published between 1 January 2005, and 30 August 2019 on gait analysis in PD. We selected studies that have either used technologies to distinguish PD patients from healthy subjects or stratified PD patients according to motor status or disease stages. Only those studies that reported at least 80% sensitivity and specificity were included. Gait analysis algorithms used for diagnosis showed a balanced accuracy range of 83.5–100%, sensitivity of 83.3–100% and specificity of 82–100%. For motor status discrimination the gait analysis algorithms showed a balanced accuracy range of 90.8–100%, sensitivity of 92.5–100% and specificity of 88–100%. Despite a large number of studies on the topic of objective gait analysis in PD, only a limited number of studies reported algorithms that were accurate enough deemed to be useful for diagnosis and symptoms monitoring. In addition, none of the reported algorithms and technologies has been validated in large scale, independent studies.

Download Full-text

Inertial Measurement Unit-Based Estimation of Foot Trajectory for Clinical Gait Analysis

10.1101/595496 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Yumi Ono ◽

Koyu Hori ◽

Hiroki Ora ◽

Yuki Hirobe ◽

Yufeng Mao ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Gait Analysis ◽

Motion Capture ◽

Stride Length ◽

Wearable Sensors ◽

Analysis Method ◽

Inertial Measurement ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Stride Duration ◽

Stance Duration ◽

Foot Trajectory

AbstractGait analysis is used widely in clinical practice for the evaluation of abnormal gait caused by disease. Conventionally, medical professionals use motion capture systems or make visual observations to evaluate a patient’s gait. Recent biomedical engineering studies have proposed easy-to-use gait analysis methods involving wearable sensors with inertial measurement units (IMUs). IMUs placed on the shanks just above the ankles allow for the long-term monitoring of gait because the participant can walk with or without shoes during the analysis. As far as the authors know, there is no report of the gait analysis method that estimates stride length, gait speed, stride duration, stance duration, and swing duration at the same time. In this study, we tested a proposed gait analysis method that uses IMUs attached on the shanks to estimate foot trajectory and temporal gait parameters. We evaluated this proposed method by analyzing the gait of 10 able-bodied participants (mean age 23.1 years, nine men and one woman). Wearable sensors were attached to the participants’ shanks, and we measured three-axis acceleration and three-axis angular velocity with the sensors to estimate foot trajectory during walking. We compared gait parameters estimated from the foot trajectory obtained with the proposed method and those measured with a motion capture system. Mean accuracy (mean ± standard deviation) was –0.046 ± 0.026 m for stride length, –0.036 ± 0.026 m/s for gait speed, –0.002 ± 0.019 s for stride duration, –0.000 ± 0.016 s for stance duration, and –0.002 ± 0.022 s for swing duration. These results suggest that the proposed method is useful for evaluation of clinical gait parameters.

Download Full-text

Critical spatiotemporal gait parameters for individuals with dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Hong Kong Physiotherapy Journal ◽

10.1142/s101370252130001x ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 1-14

Author(s):

Rita Chiaramonte ◽

Matteo Cioni

Keyword(s):

Systematic Review ◽

Gait Analysis ◽

Dual Task ◽

Stride Length ◽

Meta Analysis ◽

Time Variability ◽

Stride Time ◽

Single Task ◽

Gait Parameters ◽

Risk Of Falls

Instrumented gait analysis allows for the identification of walking parameters to predict cognitive decline and the worsening of dementia. The aim of this study was to perform a meta-analysis to better clarify which gait parameters are affected or modified with the progression of the dementia in a larger sample, as well as which gait assessment conditions (single-task or dual-task conditions) would be more sensitive to reflect the influence of dementia. Literature searches were conducted with the keywords “quantitative gait” OR “gait analysis” AND “dementia” AND “single-task” AND “dual-task,” and for “quantitative gait” OR “gait analysis” AND “dementia” AND “fall risk” on PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science. The results were used to perform a systematic review focussing on instrumental quantitative assessment of the walking of patients with dementia, during both single and dual tasks. The search was performed independently by two authors (C. R. and C. M.) from January 2018 to April 2020 using the PICOS criteria. Nine publications met the inclusion criteria and were included in the systematic review. Our meta-analysis showed that during a single task, most of the spatiotemporal parameters of gait discriminated best between patients with dementia and healthy controls, including speed, cadence, stride length, stride time, stride time variability, and stance time. In dual tasks, only speed, stride length, and stride time variability discriminated between the two groups. In addition, compared with spatial parameters (e.g. stride length), some temporal gait parameters were more correlated to the risk of falls during the comfortable walking in a single task, such as cadence, stride time, stride time variability, and stance time. During a dual task, only the variability of stride time was associated with the risk of falls.

Download Full-text