Looking for Black Swans

Symposion ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
pp. 45-77
Author(s):  
Michael F. Duggan ◽  

This article examines the basis for testing historical claims and proffers the observation that the historical method is akin to the scientific method in that it utilizes critical elimination rather than justification. Building on the critical rationalism of Karl Popper – and specifically the deductive component of the scientific method called falsification – I examine his tetradic schema and adapt it for the specific purpose of historical analysis by making explicit a discrete step of critical testing, even though the schema is adequate as Popper expresses it and the elimination of error occurs at all steps of analysis. I also add a discrete step of critical elimination to Popper’s schema even though the elimination of error occurs at every step of analysis. The basis for critical elimination history is the demonstrable counterexample. The study of history will never approach the precision of science – history deals with open systems that cannot be replicated like experiments guided by fundamental laws. But just because we cannot know something with the rigor of science does not mean that we cannon know it better than we do. There may be no objective truth in an absolute sense, but there is a distinction to be made between well-tested and poorly tested theories and therefore between history done well and history done with less analytical rigor. What I hope to show is how our historical knowledge may progress through good faith critical discussion – history is discussion – and the elimination of error.

2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 14-23
Author(s):  
Mihail V. Mosin ◽  
Natalya M. Mosina

The article describes the characteristics of the system of vowels of the end of the Finno-Ugric word base in the Mordovian languages. Considering generally accepted opinions in Finno-Ugric linguistics that the Baltic-Finnish (especially Finnish) and Sami languages ​​preserved the vocalism of the basis language, the nominal and verbal foundations of the Finno-Ugric origin in the Mordovian languages is ​​better than other related languages ​​in terms of comparison with their etymological correspondences of Finnish and Estonian languages. The nominal and verbal foundations of the modern Mordovian languages, which served as the material for the study, are subjected to comparative historical analysis with their etymological correspondences in the Baltic-Finnish (Finnish and Estonian) languages. The analysis of these fundamentals based on the comparative historical method makes it possible to firstly, establish, the preserved genetic community in the sound composition of the end of the basis, secondly, identify significant changes resulting from the isolated development of Mordovian languages, as well as to reveal their extralinguistic and internal language reasons of their appearances. The authors established phonetic correspondences based on the systematization and detailed description of the composition of the vowels of the end of the base. As a result of the loss of vowels, a number of changes occurred in the structure of the ancient base.


Author(s):  
Iryna I. Banasevych ◽  
Ruslana M. Heints ◽  
Mariia V. Lohvinova ◽  
Oksana S. Oliinyk

Theoretical and applied research of the features of the legal status of the subjects of civil law remains debatable today. Doctrinal and legislative analysis of this subject points to unresolved issues in this area. In particular, the provision on defining the state as a party to civil law remains controversial. There is no consensus on the definition of individuals and legal entities as subjects of civil law among scholars. Furthermore, the legal regulation of certain types of entities is somewhat unsystematic and chaotic. This is largely due to the insufficient development of theoretical issues related to the subjects of civil law. The above issues determine the relevance of the study of the features of the legal status of subjects of civil law. The purpose of the study is to investigate the features of the legal status of subjects of civil law based on doctrinal and legislative analysis. The study is based on a systematic approach, which lies in studying a complex system of relationships between subjects of civil law. Furthermore, the study is based on the laws and principles of dialectics, which contribute to the study of the legal status of the subjects of civil law. Systemic and structural-functional analysis was used to comprehensively describe the legal status of subjects of civil law. The historical method contributed to the study of the evolution of research on the subjects of civil law. The formal legal method helped identify the special features of the provisions of regulations concerning the subjects of civil law. With the help of the comparative legal method, the study analysed the provisions of the Civil Code of Ukraine in terms of regulation of subjects of civil law and such regulation was compared with other countries. The study defined the concepts and types of subjects of civil law and considered the features of the legal status of individuals, legal entities, as well as the state as a special participant of civil law. Special attention was paid to the historical analysis of the development of approaches to the definition of subjects of law, starting with Roman law


Author(s):  
Артём Александрович Аванесян

Статья посвящена исследованию развиваемой Г. Риккертом концепции соотнесения с ценностью как основы исторического познания. Подробно прослеживаются связующие нити, объединяющие кантианскую теорию рефлектирующей способности суждения и риккертовский исторический метод образования понятий, формулированием которого утверждается возможность научного постижения сингулярных фактов, не подверженных обобщению. Исследование процедуры соотнесения с ценностями, постулируемой в качестве критерия отбора исторически релевантного материала, позволяет прояснить коренящиеся в неокантианской философии истоки формирования категории исторического опыта как воплощения особого типа понимания, направленного на постижение единичных и неповторимых культурных явлений. The article is devoted to the study of the concept of relation to value as the basis of historical knowledge developed by H. Rickert. The connecting threads that unite the Kantian theory of the reflective ability of judgment and Rickert’s historical method of concept formation are traced in detail. On this basis, the possibility of scientific comprehension of singular facts that are not subject to generalization is revealed. The study of the procedure of establishing relation to values, postulated as a criterion for selecting historically relevant material, makes it possible to clarify the origins of the formation of the category of historical experience within the framework of neo-Kantian philosophy focused on the special type of understanding aimed at comprehending individual and unique cultural phenomena.


2019 ◽  
Vol 13 (1) ◽  
pp. 291
Author(s):  
Eunice Maria Nazarethe Nonato ◽  
Edineia Sodré Pereira de Almeida

The mechanism of the statutory assessment can be understood as one of the most important gears that put into operation the teaching-learning process of an educational institution. For the same reason, it is necessary that all its constituent mechanisms be constantly reviewed, in order to measure its success in relation to the goals it proposes. This need, wherein lies the justifications of this work, is accentuated before a glaring paradox: even though the theoretical discourse about the pedagogical assessment point to an inclusive and democratic thinking, the practice is still imbued with influences of traditional evaluative models, which results in a banking education, exclusive and hierarchical. In this sense, through a qualitative research based on extensive literature analysis, a historical analysis of the evaluation to the point of the current status quo is undertaken, in order to highlight these contradictions and inconsistencies, launching later to a critical discussion of this historical trajectory. Such is the objective of this study.ResumoO mecanismo da avaliação pode ser entendido como uma das mais importantes engrenagens que colocam em funcionamento o processo pedagógico de uma instituição de ensino. Por esse motivo, é necessário que seus mecanismos constitutivos sejam constantemente revisados, com vistas a aferir se obtêm sucesso em relação aos fins aos quais se propõe. Tal necessidade, lugar onde reside a justificativa do trabalho, se acentua perante um paradoxo: mesmo que o discurso teórico acerca da avaliação aponte para um pensamento inclusivo e democrático, as práticas avaliativas ainda permanecem impregnadas de influências dos modelos tradicionais, o que resulta numa educação bancária, excludente e hierarquizante. Nesse sentido que, por meio de uma pesquisa qualitativa embasada em ampla análise bibliográfica, se empreenderá uma análise histórica da avaliação até o ponto do status quo atual das práticas pedagógicas avaliativas, no intuito de evidenciar tais contradições, lançando-se posteriormente a uma discussão crítica dessa trajetória histórica. Tal é o objetivo do trabalho. Por fim, concluiu-se que é necessário um esforço teórico e prático daqueles que pretendem pensar as práticas pedagógicas no sentido do desenvolvimento gradual de um novo modo de avaliar: um modo que leve a sério o princípio de uma escola democrática e todas as suas implicações.ResumenEl mecanismo de la evaluación puede ser entendido como uno de los más importantes engranajes que ponen en funcionamiento el proceso pedagógico de una institución de enseñanza. Por eso, es necesario que sus mecanismos constitutivos sean constantemente revisados, con miras a medir si logran éxito en relación a los fines a los que se propone. Tal necesidad, lugar donde reside la justificación del trabajo, se acentúa ante una paradoja: aunque el discurso teórico acerca de la evaluación apunta hacia un pensamiento inclusivo y democrático, las prácticas de evaluación aún permanecen impregnadas de influencias de los modelos tradicionales, lo que resulta en una educación banca, excluyente y jerarquizante. En este sentido, por medio de una investigación cualitativa basada en un amplio análisis bibliográfico, se emprender un análisis histórico de la evaluación hasta el punto del status quo actual de las prácticas pedagógicas evaluativas, con el fin de evidenciar tales contradicciones, lanzándose posteriormente a una discusión crítica de esa trayectoria histórica. Tal es el objetivo del trabajo. Por último, se concluyó que es necesario un esfuerzo teórico y práctico de aquellos que pretenden pensar las prácticas pedagógicas en el sentido del desarrollo gradual de un nuevo modo de evaluar: un modo que tome en serio el principio de una escuela democrática y todas sus implicaciones.Keywords: Educational assessment, History, Educational practices.Palavras-chave: Avaliação pedagógica, Historicidade, Prática pedagógica.Palabras-clave: Evaluación pedagógica, Historicidad, Prácticas pedagógicas.ReferencesBAUZER, Riva. Elaboração de provas objetivas. In: MARTINS, O.; SCHEEFFER, R.; NOVAES, M. H. et al. Testes e medidas na educação. Fundação Getúlio Vargas: Rio de Janeiro, 1970, p.51-61.FRANCO, Maria Laura Barbosa. Pressupostos epistemológicos da avaliação educacional. Caderno de Pesquisas, n.º 74, vol.1, 1990, pp. 63-67.FREIRE, Paulo. Pedagogia da autonomia: saberes necessários à prática educativa. 25ª ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 1996.GADOTTI, Moacir. Educação e poder - Introdução à pedagogia do conflito. 8ª Ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 1988.GÓES, Maria Cecília Rafael de; SMOLKA, Ana Luiza Bustamante (orgs.). A significação nos espaços educacionais: interação social e subjetivação. Campinas: Papirus Editora, 1997.GONÇALVES, Alba Lúcia; LARCHERT, Jeanes Martins. Avaliação da aprendizagem. Ilhéus: Editora UESC, 2012.HADJI, C. Avaliação desmistificada. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2001.HOFFMANN, Jussara. Avaliação mediadora: uma prática em construção da pré-escola à universidade. Porto Alegre: Mediação, 2010.HOFFMANN, Jussara. Avaliação, mito e desafio: uma perspectiva construtivista. 43ªed. Porto Alegre: Mediação, 2013.HOFFMANN, Jussara. Pontos e contrapontos: do pensar ao agir em avaliação. 5ª ed. Porto Alegre: Mediação, 2012.LUCKESI, Cipriano Carlos. Avaliação da aprendizagem escolar: estudos e proposições. 22ª ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2011.RISTOW, Simaia Zancan. Análise da trajetória da avaliação educacional brasileira. 2008. 85 p. Dissertação (Mestrado) – UFSM. Santa Maria/RS, 2008.ROMÃO, José Eustáquio. Avaliação dialógica: desafios e perspectivas. 9ª ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2011.RUSSO, Maria de Fátima. Alfabetização: um processo em construção. 6ª ed. São Paulo: Saraiva, 2012.Santa Catarina, Secretaria de Estado da Educação e do Desporto. Proposta Curricular de Santa Catarina: Educação Infantil, Ensino Fundamental e Médio: Temas Multidisciplinares. Florianópolis: COGEN, 1998.VASCONCELLOS, Celso dos Santos. Superação da lógica classificatória e excludente da avaliação – do “é proibido reprovar” ao “é preciso garantir a aprendizagem”. São Paulo: Libertad, 1998.VASCONCELOS, E. M. Complexidade e pesquisa interdisciplinar: epistemologia e metodologia operativa. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2002.


Author(s):  
Noël O’Sullivan

This chapter considers four of the most influential visions that characterized the response to totalitarianism, and in particular the various concepts of limit they provide, since those are the basis of the opposition which each vision sought to oppose to the totalitarian ideal. The first vision is the positivist one of Karl Popper, for whom the logic of scientific method offers the only genuine knowledge of man and society. The second great vision is that of Berlin, who abandons positivism and instead presents the human condition in tragic terms, on the grounds that it is intrinsically characterized by a plurality of incommensurable and conflicting values. A third vision situates positivism in a naturalistic portrait of the human condition. Finally, there is the ‘civil’ vision of Michael Oakeshott, which is ultimately grounded in a radical, anti-reductionist conception of human freedom.


Author(s):  
Bradley E. Alger

Chapter 2 begins by reviewing the concept of the Scientific Method, as well as many outdated definitions of “hypothesis.” The discussion leads to the modern definition of the hypothesis as a conjectural explanation for a phenomenon; it is testable and falsifiable. The hypothesis serves as a blueprint and a summary of an investigation. Certain criticisms of the hypothesis and hypothesis-driven research are based on the older definitions of the term, and the book returns to them later. This chapter identifies and defines, with simple, nontechnical examples, concepts associated with the hypothesis, such as prediction and direct and indirect measurements. The philosophical programs of Karl Popper and John Platt, Critical Rationalism and Strong Inference, respectively, form a major focus of the chapter. The chapter explores the complexities of the concepts of falsification and corroboration and the importance of having multiple hypotheses. The chapter introduces the idea of the implicit hypothesis and ends with the presentation and discussion of key features of a good hypothesis.


2002 ◽  
Vol 48 (11) ◽  
pp. 1963-1969 ◽  
Author(s):  
John F Wilson ◽  
Ian D Watson ◽  
John Williams ◽  
Pat A Toseland ◽  
Alison H Thomson ◽  
...  

Abstract Background: The accuracy and precision of methods for the measurement of the anticonvulsants phenytoin, phenobarbital, primidone, carbamazepine, ethosuximide, and valproate in human serum were assessed in 297 laboratories that were participants in the United Kingdom National External Quality Assessment Scheme (UKNEQAS). Methods: We distributed lyophilized, serum-based materials containing low, medium, and high weighed-in concentrations of the drugs. The 297 participating laboratories received the materials on two occasions, 7 months apart. Expected concentrations were determined by gas chromatography or HPLC methods in five laboratories using serum-based NIST reference materials as calibrators. Results: In general, bias was consistent across concentrations for a method but often differed in magnitude for different drugs. Bias ranged from −1.9% to 8.6% for phenytoin, −2.7% to 3.1% for phenobarbital, −2.7% to 0.5% for primidone, −8.6% to 0.3% for carbamazepine, −5.6% to 2.0% for ethosuximide, and −7.2% to 0.1% for valproate. Intralaboratory sources of imprecision significantly exceeded interlaboratory sources for many drug/method combinations. The mean CVs for intra- and interlaboratory errors for the different drugs were 6.3–7.8% and 3.3–4.2%, respectively. Conclusions: For these long-established and relatively high-concentration analytes, the closed analytical platforms generally performed no better than open systems or chromatography, where use of calibrators prepared in house predominated. To improve the accuracy of measurements, work is required principally by the manufacturers of immunoassays to ensure minimal calibration error and to eliminate batch-to-batch variability of reagents. Individual laboratories should concentrate on minimizing dispensing errors.


1982 ◽  
Vol 24 (3) ◽  
pp. 424-437 ◽  
Author(s):  
André Burguiére

In a letter addressed to the medievalist Ferdinand Lot and dated June 1941, Charles Seignobos, hereditary enemy of the Annales, declared, “I have the impression that, for approximately the last quarter-century, the effort to think about historical method, which was vigorous in the 1880s and especially so in the 1890s, has reached a stalemate,” and noted that, as a sign of the times, “the Revue de Synthese Historique … has changed its name.” Seignobos, then only a year before his death, was writing a book on “the principles of the historical method.” His letter alluded to American and German output (“a mediocre American, Barnes, published a fat book in 1925 in which he summarized a large number of works….”), but made no mention of Lucien Febvre, Marc Bloch, or of the Annales, then in its twelfth year. To choose to ignore the Annales while discoursing on historical method is of course unjust and absurd. But aside from this omission, Charles Seignobos's remarks are not without pertinence. It is true that France at the turn of the last century and particularly during the first decade of the twentieth century, had been the center of a passionate and fascinating debate on the nature of historical knowledge, on the legitimacy of its pretensions to be a science, and so forth, and that by the 1940s this debate had ceased.


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