Mixed-initiative Variable Autonomy for Remotely Operated Mobile Robots

This article presents an Expert-guided Mixed-initiative Control Switcher (EMICS) for remotely operated mobile robots. The EMICS enables switching between different levels of autonomy during task execution initiated by either the human operator and/or the EMICS. The EMICS is evaluated in two disaster-response-inspired experiments, one with a simulated robot and test arena, and one with a real robot in a realistic environment. Analyses from the two experiments provide evidence that: (a) Human-Initiative (HI) systems outperform systems with single modes of operation, such as pure teleoperation, in navigation tasks; (b) in the context of the simulated robot experiment, Mixed-initiative (MI) systems provide improved performance in navigation tasks, improved operator performance in cognitive demanding secondary tasks, and improved operator workload compared to HI. Last, our experiment on a physical robot provides empirical evidence that identify two major challenges for MI control: (a) the design of context-aware MI control systems; and (b) the conflict for control between the robot’s MI control system and the operator. Insights regarding these challenges are discussed and ways to tackle them are proposed.

Tolerance to the Behavioural and Neurochemical Effects of MDMA Following Repeated Exposure

<p>Rationale: Following repeated +/-3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) administration there is tolerance to many behavioural effects and deficits in serotonergic neurotransmission. Objectives: The present studies had three main objectives. 1. To develop a behavioural assay to examine the effects of acute and repeated MDMA exposure. 2. To use this behavioural assay to determine whether functional changes in serotonin (5-HT)2a or 5-HT2c receptors accompany tolerance to the effects of MDMA. 3. To attempt to reverse behavioural tolerance and 5-HT deficits by administering a treatment that has been shown to desensitise the 5-HT1a autoreceptor. Methods: In separate groups of rats the dose effect curves for MDMAproduced hyperactivity were determined (0.0, 1.0, 3.3, 10.0 mg/kg). In additional groups the effect of MDMA pretreatment (4 X 10mg/kg MDMA injections at 2 hour intervals) or saline vehicle on MDMA-produced hyperactivity was assessed. To determine the experimental parameters for MDMA effects in the Emergence Test (ET) separate groups of rats received MDMA (0.0, 3.3 mg/kg) and were either habituated to a hide box for various periods (15, 30, 45mins) or exposed to the test arena 3 times over a period of days (day 1, 5, 9) or injected daily in the home cage with MDMA (0.0, 3.3mg/kg) for 3 days. Emergence latency following injections of MDMA (0.0, 3.3mg/kg), the 5-HT2a /c agonistm-CPP (0.0, 0.3, 0.6 or 1.25 m/kg), the 5-HT releasing stimulant, fenfluramine (0.0, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg), and the 5-HT2a agonist DOI (0.0, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg) was measured. The role of 5-HT2c receptors was assessed by determining the effect of the 5-HT2c antagonist, RS102221 (0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 mg/kg). The effect of MDMA pretreatment on MDMA (0.0, 3.3 mg/kg), m-CPP (1.25 mg/kg), or fenfluramine (2.0mg/kg) induced increases in emergence latency was also assessed. The functional status of the 5-HT1a autoreceptor following MDMA pretreatment was determined by measuring the effect of the 5-HT1a agonist, 8- OHDPAT (0.0, 0.315, 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 mg/kg, SC), on body temperature. The ability of the 5-HT1a antagonist, WAY100635 (0.0, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0mg/kg, SC, 1 X daily for 7 days or by local injection of 0.0 or 500 ng into the dorsal raphe) to reverse the attenuation of MDMA-induced hyperactivity following MDMA pretreatment was examined. Effects of various treatments on tissue levels of 5-HT and 5-HIAA were also measured using HPLC with EC. Results: MDMA produced dose-dependent hyperactivity and tolerance was produced by MDMA pretreatment. MDMA (3.3mg/kg) increased emergence latency following a 30 minute habituation period and this effect was reduced in MDMA-pretreated rats. Fenfluramine and m-CPP but not DOI also increased emergence latency in a dose-dependent manner. RS102221 dose dependently blocked the acute effects of MDMA and m-CPP. Two weeks following MDMA pretreatment rats were tolerant to the effects of MDMA and fenfluramine, but not m-CPP. MDMA pretreatment also produced significant reductions in tissue levels of 5-HT and 5-HIAA. Subcutaneous WAY100635 administration failed to reverse the behavioural and neurochemical deficits produced by MDMA pretreatment but local administration increased MDMA-produced hyperactivity in saline and MDMA pretreated rats and reversed MDMA-produced 5-HT tissue depletions. Conclusion: The Emergence Test is a behavioural assay sensitive to the effects of acute and repeated MDMA exposure. Following MDMA pretreatment behavioural tolerance as measured by the ET is likely to be due to impaired 5-HT release rather than changes in 5-HT2a or 5-HT2c receptor responses. Because partial reversal of tolerance and 5-HT deficits following repeated MDMA administration was achieved through local DRN 5-HT1a antagonist administration the 5-HT1a autoreceptor may prove to be a clinical target for the reversal of MDMA produced deficits.</p>

Tolerance to the Behavioural and Neurochemical Effects of MDMA Following Repeated Exposure

<p>Rationale: Following repeated +/-3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) administration there is tolerance to many behavioural effects and deficits in serotonergic neurotransmission. Objectives: The present studies had three main objectives. 1. To develop a behavioural assay to examine the effects of acute and repeated MDMA exposure. 2. To use this behavioural assay to determine whether functional changes in serotonin (5-HT)2a or 5-HT2c receptors accompany tolerance to the effects of MDMA. 3. To attempt to reverse behavioural tolerance and 5-HT deficits by administering a treatment that has been shown to desensitise the 5-HT1a autoreceptor. Methods: In separate groups of rats the dose effect curves for MDMAproduced hyperactivity were determined (0.0, 1.0, 3.3, 10.0 mg/kg). In additional groups the effect of MDMA pretreatment (4 X 10mg/kg MDMA injections at 2 hour intervals) or saline vehicle on MDMA-produced hyperactivity was assessed. To determine the experimental parameters for MDMA effects in the Emergence Test (ET) separate groups of rats received MDMA (0.0, 3.3 mg/kg) and were either habituated to a hide box for various periods (15, 30, 45mins) or exposed to the test arena 3 times over a period of days (day 1, 5, 9) or injected daily in the home cage with MDMA (0.0, 3.3mg/kg) for 3 days. Emergence latency following injections of MDMA (0.0, 3.3mg/kg), the 5-HT2a /c agonistm-CPP (0.0, 0.3, 0.6 or 1.25 m/kg), the 5-HT releasing stimulant, fenfluramine (0.0, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg), and the 5-HT2a agonist DOI (0.0, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg) was measured. The role of 5-HT2c receptors was assessed by determining the effect of the 5-HT2c antagonist, RS102221 (0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 mg/kg). The effect of MDMA pretreatment on MDMA (0.0, 3.3 mg/kg), m-CPP (1.25 mg/kg), or fenfluramine (2.0mg/kg) induced increases in emergence latency was also assessed. The functional status of the 5-HT1a autoreceptor following MDMA pretreatment was determined by measuring the effect of the 5-HT1a agonist, 8- OHDPAT (0.0, 0.315, 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 mg/kg, SC), on body temperature. The ability of the 5-HT1a antagonist, WAY100635 (0.0, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0mg/kg, SC, 1 X daily for 7 days or by local injection of 0.0 or 500 ng into the dorsal raphe) to reverse the attenuation of MDMA-induced hyperactivity following MDMA pretreatment was examined. Effects of various treatments on tissue levels of 5-HT and 5-HIAA were also measured using HPLC with EC. Results: MDMA produced dose-dependent hyperactivity and tolerance was produced by MDMA pretreatment. MDMA (3.3mg/kg) increased emergence latency following a 30 minute habituation period and this effect was reduced in MDMA-pretreated rats. Fenfluramine and m-CPP but not DOI also increased emergence latency in a dose-dependent manner. RS102221 dose dependently blocked the acute effects of MDMA and m-CPP. Two weeks following MDMA pretreatment rats were tolerant to the effects of MDMA and fenfluramine, but not m-CPP. MDMA pretreatment also produced significant reductions in tissue levels of 5-HT and 5-HIAA. Subcutaneous WAY100635 administration failed to reverse the behavioural and neurochemical deficits produced by MDMA pretreatment but local administration increased MDMA-produced hyperactivity in saline and MDMA pretreated rats and reversed MDMA-produced 5-HT tissue depletions. Conclusion: The Emergence Test is a behavioural assay sensitive to the effects of acute and repeated MDMA exposure. Following MDMA pretreatment behavioural tolerance as measured by the ET is likely to be due to impaired 5-HT release rather than changes in 5-HT2a or 5-HT2c receptor responses. Because partial reversal of tolerance and 5-HT deficits following repeated MDMA administration was achieved through local DRN 5-HT1a antagonist administration the 5-HT1a autoreceptor may prove to be a clinical target for the reversal of MDMA produced deficits.</p>

Interspecific agonistic behaviour of Odontotermes javanicus and Microcerotermes sp. (Isoptera: Termitidae): Preliminary study

Termite interaction from the same or different colonies or species can display a variety of agonistic behaviours. The study aimed to observe the interspecific agonistic behaviour of Odontotermes javanicus and Microcerotermes sp. For this purpose, an assay was carried out using a test arena separated into two groups. Termite responses were tested against each other in the following pairwise test (worker versus worker, worker versus soldier, and soldier versus soldier) with a 1:1 ratio (ten individuals) from each colony. Specimens were collected at the area of Forestry Faculty, Universitas Hasanuddin, Indonesia. The observed agonistic behaviour of both species is dominated by examination (antennation) and aggression (attacking, grappling, and biting). There were three treatment combinations that classified as no aggression, except for the treatment (Microcerotermes sp. soldier versus O. javanicus worker) that classified in aggression level 3 (aggressive). Based on termite survival after five minutes of testing, O. javanicus is more competitive than Microcerotermes sp,; no more individual termites of both species survive after 24 hours of testing.

Red Junglefowl Chicks Seek Contact With Humans During Foraging Task

Contact seeking with humans is documented in some domestic animals, mainly dogs, which have advanced communication skills. Domestication as a companion animal is thought to underlie this ability. However, also domesticated horses and goats display similar human-directed behaviors. This suggests either a broader effect of domestication on contact-seeking behavior, or alternatively, that social interactions with humans can result in the development of human contact seeking. As part of another study, we observed contact-seeking behavior in juvenile red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) chicks exposed to behavioral training since hatching, during a foraging task, where chicks were singly required to collect food rewards in a familiar arena using odor cues. If chicks left the arena, we recorded if they approached and looked up at the experimenter, or if they approached other objects (including another human). Chicks approached the experimenter significantly more often than they approached other objects. This behavior was not linked to a fast performance in the test arena, which gave some birds more time to explore the surroundings, or to learning ability measured in a cognitive task. Yet, the preference for the experimenter was lower for chicks that were handled more prior to the experiment. Also, approach probability was positively correlated with escape attempts in a novel arena test. The observed variation in approach behavior suggests a link to aspects of personality, and exposure to human interactions and experimental procedures. Our observations suggest that, although neither domesticated nor selectively bred, red junglefowl that are socialized with humans can potentially develop behavior used to describe contact seeking. Together with evidence from cognitive and behavioral studies, our results suggest that social experiences, not only domestication, can affect human-animal interactions. We propose how interactions between behavior, cognition and handling could be studied further in controlled settings to validate the preliminary findings of our study and uncover the underlying mechanisms.

Modeling Building Stock Development

It is widely agreed that dynamics of building stocks are relatively poorly known even if it is recognized to be an important research topic. Better understanding of building stock dynamics and future development is crucial, e.g., for sustainable management of the built environment as various analyses require long-term projections of building stock development. Recognizing the uncertainty in relation to long-term modeling, we propose a transparent calculation-based QuantiSTOCK model for modeling building stock development. Our approach not only provides a tangible tool for understanding development when selected assumptions are valid but also, most importantly, allows for studying the sensitivity of results to alternative developments of the key variables. Therefore, this relatively simple modeling approach provides fruitful grounds for understanding the impact of different key variables, which is needed to facilitate meaningful debate on different housing, land use, and environment-related policies. The QuantiSTOCK model may be extended in numerous ways and lays the groundwork for modeling the future developments of building stocks. The presented model may be used in a wide range of analyses ranging from assessing housing demand at the regional level to providing input for defining sustainable pathways towards climate targets. Due to the availability of high-quality data, the Finnish building stock provided a great test arena for the model development.

Termiticidal activity of oil from Jatropha curcas L. and Azadirachta indica A. Juss against Coptotermes sjostedti Holmgren (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

Background Coptotermes sjostedti Holmgren (Isoptera:Rhinotermitidae) is one of the major termite species found infesting woods and other plant materials in Africa. Bioassays were carried out at the Arboretum of the Department of Forestry and Wildlife Resources Management, University of Calabar, Nigeria to investigate the effect of oils from the kernel of Jatropha curcas L. and Azadirachta indica oils A. Juss against the African subterranean termite (Coptotermes sjostedti Holmgren). Treatments comprised of the plant oils and Solignum (a synthetic termiticide, serving as positive control) applied at the rate of 5, 10 and 15 mL per 100 cm3 of the wood from seven plant species. Untreated woods also served as control. Seven wood species were placed in a test arena and artificially infested with 50 termites per unit. The setup was a randomized complete block design with four replicates. Data on termite mortality and wood weight loss were recorded. Results The use of 10 and 15 mL of J. curcas oil caused more than 90% mortality of C. sjostedti, after 96 h, kept wood consumption by the insect below 6.0% after 3 months, and these outcomes were similar to that of Solignum at the same concentrations. About 35.0–65.2% reduction in weight was observed among untreated woods from the tested woods, indicating their susceptibility to C. sjostedti attacks. Correlation analysis shows a significant (r > − 0.900; P < 0.0001) negative association between termite mortality and the rate of wood consumption. Conclusion The use of J. curcas oil at 10 mL per 100 cm3 of wood could be a potent alternative to Solignum for the control of C. sjostedti.

Attention Bias Test Measures Negative But Not Positive Affect in Sheep: A Replication Study

An attention bias test has been developed as a measure of negative affective states in sheep. The test measures an individual’s allocation of attention between a threatening (previous location of a dog) and positive (conspecific photo) stimulus over a 3 min period. This study replicated a previously inconclusive study, to determine whether the test could assess positive affective states under more controlled conditions and with a younger population of animals. Pharmacological treatments were used to induce anxious, calm, happy, and control affective states prior to entering the attention bias test arena (n = 20/treatment). We hypothesized that sheep in positive and negative affective states could be differentiated using key measures of attention during testing, including vigilance (head at or above shoulder height) and duration looking towards the valenced stimuli. Anxious sheep were more vigilant than control animals during attention bias testing as predicted (linear mixed effects model, p = 0.002), but the positive groups did not differ from controls (p > 0.05). There was no effect of treatment on looking behaviors (p > 0.05). We suggest this attention bias test paradigm can assess negative but not positive affect in sheep and that modifications to the ethogram or stimuli are needed to more clearly characterize the direction of attention during testing.

Social Referencing in the Domestic Horse

Dogs and cats use human emotional information directed to an unfamiliar situation to guide their behavior, known as social referencing. It is not clear whether other domestic species show similar socio-cognitive abilities in interacting with humans. We investigated whether horses (n = 46) use human emotional information to adjust their behavior to a novel object and whether the behavior of horses differed depending on breed type. Horses were randomly assigned to one of two groups: an experimenter positioned in the middle of a test arena directed gaze and voice towards the novel object with either (a) a positive or (b) a negative emotional expression. The duration of subjects’ position to the experimenter and the object in the arena, frequency of gazing behavior, and physical interactions (with either object or experimenter) were analyzed. Horses in the positive condition spent more time between the experimenter and object compared to horses in the negative condition, indicating less avoidance behavior towards the object. Horses in the negative condition gazed more often towards the object than horses in the positive condition, indicating increased vigilance behavior. Breed types differed in their behavior: thoroughbreds showed less human-directed behavior than warmbloods and ponies. Our results provide evidence that horses use emotional cues from humans to guide their behavior towards novel objects.

Predator recognition and anti-predatory behaviour in a recent aquatic invader, the killer shrimp (Dikerogammarus villosus)

The killer shrimp (Dikerogammarus villosus) is one of the most recent, but also most damaging, aquatic invasive species in Europe, but information on how the species responds to novel predation pressures in recently invaded areas is very limited. We employed an open test arena to examine predator recognition and anti-predatory behaviour in killer shrimp exposed to either blank water or water conditioned with fish kairomones to simulate a predator threat. Within five years after their introduction, killer shrimp spent much more time hiding in the presence of fish kairomones than when they were exposed to blank water. However, no significant difference was found in aggregation behaviour, and killer shrimp were strongly attracted to the scent of conspecifics regardless of predator threat. Given the strong selective pressures that fish predators can exert on native and invasive gammarids, our findings highlight the need to consider prey-predator interactions to better predict the dispersal and likely impact of killer shrimp into invaded ecosystems.