Mixed-initiative Variable Autonomy for Remotely Operated Mobile Robots

This article presents an Expert-guided Mixed-initiative Control Switcher (EMICS) for remotely operated mobile robots. The EMICS enables switching between different levels of autonomy during task execution initiated by either the human operator and/or the EMICS. The EMICS is evaluated in two disaster-response-inspired experiments, one with a simulated robot and test arena, and one with a real robot in a realistic environment. Analyses from the two experiments provide evidence that: (a) Human-Initiative (HI) systems outperform systems with single modes of operation, such as pure teleoperation, in navigation tasks; (b) in the context of the simulated robot experiment, Mixed-initiative (MI) systems provide improved performance in navigation tasks, improved operator performance in cognitive demanding secondary tasks, and improved operator workload compared to HI. Last, our experiment on a physical robot provides empirical evidence that identify two major challenges for MI control: (a) the design of context-aware MI control systems; and (b) the conflict for control between the robot’s MI control system and the operator. Insights regarding these challenges are discussed and ways to tackle them are proposed.

Operator workload analysis on coconut tree climbing using portable coconut climbing equipment

Recently, the work of climbing coconuts, especially in Aceh Province Indonesia still uses traditional methods, namely by climbing coconut trees directly. Traditional climbing is very high risk because it can fall which threatens the safety of life. Besides that, this job is also a heavy work category because it requires a lot of energy to do it. Therefore, the analysis of operator workload on climbing coconut trees using portable coconut climbing equipment is expected to be useful for developing tool designs and methods for climbing coconuts that are safer, more comfortable and more effective. The calculation of the operator’s workload is based on heart rate measurements, where three operators have their heart rate data taken during coconut tree climbing activities, either manually or using portable climbing tools. The workloads analyzed are qualitative and quantitative workloads. The results of the workload analysis indicate that climbing is traditionally classified as a “medium” job with an average IRHR value of 1.45, while using portable climbing equipment is classified as heavy work with an IRHR value of 1.54 The traditional climbing energy consumption rate is 3.29 kcal/hour.kg-ow (kilocalories per hour per operator’s weight), while using a portable climbing equipment is 3.82 kcal/hour.kg-ow. The high level of operator workload is largely determined by the operator’s habits in doing climbing as well as skills that must be trained in operating the tool. However, in terms of operator safety, the use of portable equipment has a higher level of security because there are footrests and handrails as well as seat belts.

Ergonomics study on pivot-type trailer operation for two-wheel tractor on sloping land

The operation of the pivot type trailer on a two-wheeled tractor on flat land shows that it is more ergonomic than conventional trailers, but for testing on sloping land it has never been tested. Therefore, this study aims to analyze ergonomics, especially the operator’s workload on the operation of a pivot-type trailer on a two-wheel tractor on a sloping land. The calculation of the operator’s workload is based on heart rate measurements, where three operators have their heart rate data taken during the activity of operating a two-wheeled tractor in pulling a trailer. The workloads analyzed are qualitative and quantitative workloads. The results showed that the operation of conventional trailers for land slopes of 0°, 10°, and 30° respectively showed IRHR values of 1.23, 1.24, and 1.31 or the level of work “light”, “light”, and “light”. While using a pivot type trailer, the IRHR values are 1.20, 1.27, and 1.55 or the work levels are “light”, “light”, and “medium”. The average energy consumption rate of operating a conventional trailer is 2.54 kcal/hour.kg-bb (kilocalories per hour per operator’s weight), while using a pivot type trailer 2.60 kcal/hour.kg-bb. The high level of operator workload is largely determined by the skill of the operator in operating the trailer, which requires training in its operation. This causes the operator’s workload to operate on pivot type trailers higher than conventional trailers. However, from the aspect of operator comfort and safety, pivot-type trailers are superior, especially when turning.

The Impact of Information Integration in a Simulation of Future Submarine Command and Control

Objective Examine the extent to which increasing information integration across displays in a simulated submarine command and control room can reduce operator workload, improve operator situation awareness, and improve team performance. Background In control rooms, the volume and number of sources of information are increasing, with the potential to overwhelm operator cognitive capacity. It is proposed that by distributing information to maximize relevance to each operator role (increasing information integration), it is possible to not only reduce operator workload but also improve situation awareness and team performance. Method Sixteen teams of six novice participants were trained to work together to combine data from multiple sensor displays to build a tactical picture of surrounding contacts at sea. The extent that data from one display were available to operators at other displays was manipulated (information integration) between teams. Team performance was assessed as the accuracy of the generated tactical picture. Results Teams built a more accurate tactical picture, and individual team members had better situation awareness and lower workload, when provided with high compared with low information integration. Conclusion A human-centered design approach to integrating information in command and control settings can result in lower workload, and enhanced situation awareness and team performance. Application The design of modern command and control rooms, in which operators must fuse increasing volumes of complex data from displays, may benefit from higher information integration based on a human-centered design philosophy, and a fundamental understanding of the cognitive work that is carried out by operators.

Real-Time Speech Workload Estimation for Intelligent Human- Machine Systems

Demanding task environments (e.g., supervising a remotely piloted aircraft) require performing tasks quickly and accurately; however, periods of low and high operator workload can decrease task performance. Intelligent modulation of the system’s demands and interaction modality in response to changes in operator workload state may increase performance by avoiding undesirable workload states. This system requires real- time estimation of each workload component (i.e., cognitive, physical, visual, speech, and auditory) to adapt the correct modality. Existing workload systems estimate multiple workload components post-hoc, but none estimate speech workload, or function in real-time. This manuscript presents an algorithm to estimate speech workload and mitigate undesirable workload states in real-time. The adaptive system uses the algorithm’s estimates to mitigate under/overload, a crucial step towards adaptive machine-human systems.

Quantitative Evaluation of Work Efficiency and Eye Strain for Remote Control Construction Equipment Using 2D/3D Displays

Remotely operated construction machines are used in cases where the operators are in danger, such as on steep slopes or contaminated sites. However, remote operation differs from what operators perceive during hands-on machine operation. Various studies have focused on improving work efficiency by employing remote control operation to reduce operator workload. In these studies, questionnaires were generally employed to evaluate the operator workload. However, the results obtained from the questionnaires varied depending on the physical conditions and the mood of the person on that day. It was therefore concluded that an accurate evaluation cannot be performed based on this method. Hence, in this study, the eye strain of machine operators was measured using an Auto Refractor/Keratometer. In particular, the ciliary muscle activities were measured before and after operating three display systems used for remote control of construction equipment. A quantitative evaluation was then conducted based on the eye strain data. The 2D display system exhibited low work accuracy and efficiency and resulted in significant eye strain. Although the 3D display system that required glasses exhibited high accuracy and efficiency, it resulted in significant eye strain. The 3D display system that did not require glasses demonstrated high accuracy and lower eye strain. From the results presented above, it was confirmed that the autostereoscopic 3D system is suitable for operators.

244An automated beat exclusion algorithm to improve beat-to-beat P-wave morphology analysis

Background A manually beat-to-beat P-wave analysis has previously revealed the existence of multiple P-wave morphologies in patients with paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation (AF) while on sinus rhythm, distinguishing them from healthy, AF free patients. Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an Automated Beat Exclusion algorithm (ABE) that excludes noisy or ectopic beats, replacing manual beat evaluation during beat-to-beat P-wave analysis, by assessing its effect on inter-rater variability and reproducibility. Methods Beat-to-beat P-wave morphology analysis was performed on 34 ten-minute ECG recordings of patients with a history of AF. Each recording was analyzed independently by two clinical experts for a total of four analysis runs; once with ABE and once again with the manual exclusion of ineligible beats. The inter-rater variability and reproducibility of the analysis with and without ABE were assessed by comparing the agreement of analysis runs with respect to secondary morphology detection, primary morphology ECG template and the percentage of both, as these aspects have been previously used to discriminate PAF patients from controls. Results Comparing ABE to manual exclusion in detecting secondary P-wave morphologies displayed substantial (Cohen"s k = 0.69) to almost perfect (k = 0.82) agreement. Area difference among auto and manually calculated main morphology templates was in every case <5% (p < 0.01) and the correlation coefficient was >0.99 (p < 0.01). Finally, the percentages of beats classified to the primary or secondary morphology per recording by each analysis were strongly correlated, for both main and secondary P-wave morphologies, ranging from ρ=0.756 to ρ=0.940 (picture) Conclusion The use of the ABE algorithm does not diminish inter-rater variability and reproducibility of the analysis. The primary and secondary P-wave morphologies produced by all analyses were similar, both in terms of their template and their frequency. Based on the results of this study, the ABE algorithm incorporated in the beat-to-beat P-wave morphology analysis drastically reduces operator workload without influencing the quality of the analysis. Abstract Figure.

Easily Applicable Methods for Measuring the Mental Load on Tractor Operators

Agriculture technology is moving toward automation, placing operators in a supervisory role. This change in operator workload may lead to increased stress and higher mental load, resulting in reduced attention and hence greater risk of illness or injury to humans and damage to equipment. This study investigated the use of easily applicable equipment to measure mental load.Three methods were used to measure the mental load on machine operators: heart rate monitoring, two types of electroencephalograph (EEG) evaluation, and an assessment protocol. Three driving exercises (general driving, slalom driving, and loading) and a counting exercise were used in a driving simulator to create different levels of mental load. Due to the number of exercises, a single-scale assessment protocol was used to save time. We found that only the assessment protocol gave clear results and would work well as an evaluation tool. The heart rate and EEG measurements did not provide clear data for mental load assessment. Keywords: Agriculture, Awareness, Continuous measurement, EEG, Heart rate, Mental load, Simulator, Single-scale assessment, Tractor operator, Work machinery.