Cognitive and Affective Learning in English as a Foreign Language/English as a Second Language Instructional-Learning Contexts: Does Teacher Immediacy Matter?

A noteworthy frame of the literature has maintained the idea that communication in the classroom is dominant in language education, and in the process of language learning, teachers as an important figure may apply several ways to develop interpersonal relationships and social manners, such as teacher immediacy that has been established to support affective and cognitive learning in instructional settings. Therefore, this theoretical review tries to systematically refocus on the existing literature about teacher immediacy and its types, such as non-verbal and verbal, and their significant connections with affective and cognitive education. To this end, this review focuses on social behavior to review the eminence of teacher immediacy in the classroom and unquestionably exemplify their relationship with affective and cognitive learning. As a final fact, this review has been intended to consider the prevailing literature about teacher behavior, and suggestions and recommendations have been presented correspondingly for language teaching stakeholders in the educational setting.

Examining the Schoolwide Expectations Survey for Specific Settings: Descriptive Properties

In tiered systems, all school faculty and staff ideally recognize student academic, behavioral, and social achievement as a shared responsibility. In an ideal system, faculty and staff collaborate in a data-informed process to define common student expectations to facilitate success. Adults provide clarity for all students by defining expectations for instructional and non-instructional settings, allowing equitable access to all areas of the school experience. In this replication study, we explored educator priorities of behavioral expectations in classroom and non-instructional settings for students as measured by the Schoolwide Expectations Survey for Specific Settings (SESSS). We analyzed faculty and staff data from 10 schools whose leadership team participated in a yearlong professional learning series to design their comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered (Ci3T) model of prevention. Results indicated educators across school levels (elementary, middle, high) had similar views on what expectations should be prioritized for student success, with statistically significant differences found for the hallway setting. Implications and future directions for research in this area are discussed.

Teachers’ Ability to Apply Their Subject-Specific Knowledge in Instructional Settings—A Qualitative Comparative Study in the Subjects Mathematics and Economics

To teach effectively, teachers need subject-specific knowledge, such as content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, but also an ability to apply that knowledge to master demanding classroom situations. However, there is no consensus in research whether this ability should be modeled as a subject-specific ability or as a generic ability. This question is important for effective teacher training and especially for out-of-field teaching. In this exploratory study, we investigate the subject-specificity of the ability to apply subject-specific knowledge with German secondary pre-service teachers who are equally trained to teach mathematics and economics. We administered paper-pencil tests for subject-specific knowledge in both subjects to 37 pre-service teachers. In addition, video vignettes of instructional situations were used to elicit their ability to apply that knowledge. N = 6 cases showed apt subject-specific knowledge in both subjects to be analyzed regarding knowledge application. Based on a qualitative analysis of 93 responses to the video vignettes, teachers’ ability to apply that knowledge was examined. Our findings indicate systematic qualitative differences in the pre-service teachers’ responses in mathematics and economics. The results favor a subject-specific conceptualization of teachers’ ability to apply subject-specific knowledge in instructional settings. This implies for teacher training that learning opportunities for promoting teachers’ ability to apply their subject-specific knowledge in instructional settings should be designed specifically for the subject that will be taught. Our study also suggests that out-of-field teachers require training in both knowledge and an ability to apply this knowledge in teaching another subject, as their ability to apply knowledge may not transfer from their field of expertise.

Code-Switching in Interactions between Teacher and Students with Different Levels of Language Proficiencies

In an English teaching and learning process, teachers and students have interactions that occupy the students’ first language. It can be related to the existence of code-switching. It can help them fill in the gap which occurs during a conversation. It can improve the quality of teaching and learning. This study focuses on the analysis of code-switching in the interactions between the teacher and the students with different levels of language proficiency. This study examines how the teacher produced code-switching, the students’ responses towards the teacher’s code-switching, and the teacher’s roles code-switching. This study employed qualitative research. The instruments used for collecting data were audio-video recording, test, interview, and questionnaire. Findings of the study revealed that (1) the teacher used three types of code-switching to the students with different levels of language proficiency and the function of repetitive was the most frequent function found in the interactions, (2) the students responded to the teacher’s code-switching by using English, Indonesian language or code-switching, and (3) the roles of teacher as a controller and a director have the crucial use in the interactions. Hopefully, further studies can explore code-switching deeply in the interactions between teachers and students with different language proficiency levels in instructional settings.

A A framework for designing pedagogical materials in Indigenous languages: examples from Brazil and Mexico

Many language revitalization programs in Latin America rely heavily on instructional settings that require some sort of pedagogical materials. One of the primary challenges for such programs is to produce these materials and incorporate them into consistent practices. This paper presents a framework that can be used to assess the needs and justify the design choices for books, dictionaries, grammars and multimedia products to be incorporated into indigenous language revitalization programs. The examples used to illustrate the deployment of such framework come from two projects, one in Brazil and one in Mexico, to prepare pedagogical grammars in multiple indigenous languages.

A A framework for designing pedagogical materials in Indigenous languages: examples from Brazil and Mexico

Many language revitalization programs in Latin America rely heavily on instructional settings that require some sort of pedagogical materials. One of the primary challenges for such programs is to produce these materials and incorporate them into consistent practices. This paper presents a framework that can be used to assess the needs and justify the design choices for books, dictionaries, grammars and multimedia products to be incorporated into indigenous language revitalization programs. The examples used to illustrate the deployment of such framework come from two projects, one in Brazil and one in Mexico, to prepare pedagogical grammars in multiple indigenous languages.

The Relationship between Intelligence and Divergent Thinking—A Meta-Analytic Update

This paper provides a meta-analytic update on the relationship between intelligence and divergent thinking (DT), as research on this topic has increased, and methods have diversified since Kim’s meta-analysis in 2005. A three-level meta-analysis was used to analyze 849 correlation coefficients from 112 studies with an overall N = 34,610. The overall effect showed a significant positive correlation of r = .25. This increase of the correlation as compared to Kim’s prior meta-analytic findings could be attributed to the correction of attenuation because a difference between effect sizes prior-Kim vs. post-Kim was non-significant. Different moderators such as scoring methods, instructional settings, intelligence facets, and task modality were tested together with theoretically relevant interactions between some of these factors. These moderation analyses showed that the intelligence–DT relationship can be higher (up to r = .31–.37) when employing test-like assessments coupled with be-creative instructions, and considering DT originality scores. The facet of intelligence (g vs. gf vs. gc) did not affect the correlation between intelligence and DT. Furthermore, we found two significant sample characteristics: (a) average sample age was positively associated with the intelligence–DT correlation, and (b) the intelligence–DT correlation decreased for samples with increasing percentages of females in the samples. Finally, inter-moderator correlations were checked to take potential confounding into account, and also publication bias was assessed. This meta-analysis provides a comprehensive picture of current research and possible research gaps. Theoretical implications, as well as recommendations for future research, are discussed.

English Learner Labeling: How English Learner Classification in Kindergarten Shapes Teacher Perceptions of Student Skills and the Moderating Role of Bilingual Instructional Settings

Prior research has shown that English learner (EL) classification is consequential for students; however, less is known about how EL classification affects student outcomes. In this study, we examine one hypothesized mechanism: teacher perceptions. Using a national data set (Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Kindergarten Cohort of 2010–2011 or ECLS-K:2011), we use coarsened exact matching to estimate the effect of kindergarten EL status on teachers’ perceptions of students’ academic skills. We further explore whether that impact is moderated by instructional setting (bilingual vs. English immersion). We find evidence that EL classification results in lower teacher perceptions. This impact is, however, moderated by bilingual environments. In bilingual classrooms, we do not find evidence that EL classification results in diminished perceptions. This study adds to research on teacher perceptions and the effects of EL classification.