Active maintenance in working memory reinforces bindings for future retrieval from long-term episodic memory

Many theories assume that actively maintaining information in working memory (WM) predicts its retention in episodic memory (EM), as revealed by the beneficial effects of more WM time. Here, we examined whether affording more time for intentional WM maintenance does indeed drive EM. Participants either intentionally or incidentally encoded sequences of four words presented during trials of simple span (short time) and complex and slow span (long time). Long time intervals entailed a pause of equivalent duration between the words that presented an arithmetic problem to read aloud and solve (complex span) or a blank screen (slow span). To ensure similar encoding of the words across the intentional and incidental encoding groups, participants silently decided whether each word was a living or nonliving thing via keypress (i.e., an animacy judgment; Experiment 1) or read the words aloud while pressing the spacebar (Experiment 2). A surprise delayed recall test at the end of the experiment assessed EM. Longer time in WM, particularly during slow span, improved retrieval from EM for both intentional and incidental encoding groups relative to short time, but for different reasons: modeling of the data indicated that longer intentional encoding increased binding memory (i.e., retrieval of the items’ positions in the trial; Experiments 1 and 2), whereas longer elaborative but incidental encoding increased item memory (i.e., memory of items irrespective of their bindings; Experiment 1). This suggests that time spent actively keeping information in WM is special for EM because WM is a system that maintains bindings.

The Hebb repetition effect in complex span tasks: Evidence for a shared learning mechanism with simple span tasks

The Hebb repetition effect on serial-recall task refers to the improvement in the accuracy of recall of a repeated list (e.g., repeated in every 3 trials) over random non-repeated lists. Previous research has shown that both temporal position and neighboring items need to be the same on each repetition list for the Hebb repetition effect to occur, suggesting chunking as one of its underlying mechanisms. Accordingly, one can expect absence of the Hebb repetition effect in a complex span task, given that the sequence is interrupted by distractors. Nevertheless, one study by Oberauer, Jones, and Lewandowsky (2015, Memory & Cognition, 43[6], 852–865) showed evidence of the Hebb repetition effect in a complex span task. Throughout four experiments, we confirmed the Hebb repetition effect in complex span tasks, even when we included distractors in both encoding and recall phases to avoid any resemblance to a simple span task and minimized the possibility of chunking. Results showed that the Hebb repetition effect was not affected by the distractors during encoding and recall. A transfer cycle analysis showed that the long-term knowledge acquired in the complex span task can be transferred to a simple span task. These findings provide the first insights on the mechanism behind the Hebb repetition effect in complex span tasks; it is at least partially based on the same mechanism that improves recall performance by repetition in simple span tasks.

The Neural Correlates of Working Memory Training in Typically Developing Children

Working memory training improves cognitive performance on untrained tasks; however, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms, particularly in childhood where neuroplasticity may be greatest. The neural correlates of working memory training were investigated in 32 typically developing children aged 10-14 years (19 girls and 13 boys; Devon, UK) using a randomised controlled design and multi-modal MRI. Training improved working memory performance and increased intrinsic functional connectivity within the dorsal attention network. Furthermore, improvements in working memory were associated with greater recruitment of the left middle frontal gyrus during a complex span task. The repeated engagement of fronto-parietal regions during training may increase their activity and functional connectivity over time, affording greater attentional control on working memory tasks.

Strategy use moderates the relation between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence: A combined approach

This study investigated whether the strength of the link between working memory capacity (WMC) and fluid intelligence (Gf) differs as people use different strategies to solve Gf problems. A sample of 214 university students completed three complex span tasks and Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). Strategic behavior was measured by both a strategy questionnaire and eye tracking. Using latent profile analysis, three strategies described as constructive matching, response elimination, and isolate-and-eliminate were identified. Participants adopting constructive matching and response elimination exhibited substantial differences in the eye-movement measures across the APM items, confirming the validity of the strategy questionnaire in combination of latent profile analysis for determining strategy use. Furthermore, strategy use moderated the relationship between WMC and APM performance. The link between WMC and APM scores was significantly higher for participants who used isolate-and-eliminate (r = .54) and response elimination (r = .63) than that for participants who used constructive matching (r = .27). Our findings suggest that the simple dichotomy of strategy use in the APM is not tenable, and the extent to which WMC relates to performance on the APM varies as a function of strategy use.

Coaching Tutorial System: use case matter of degree seminar

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the impact of a training program on the level of working memory in a sample of university students. For this, a quasi-experimental study with an active control group was implemented in 29 students of basic teaching and computer systems, applying complex span tasks before and after the intervention. For training, multimídia routines were used for the experimental group and an academic essay elaboration workshop for the control group. The pre-test confirmed intergroup statistical equality for all the measurements used and the post-test, in favor of the experimental group, detected significant difference and large effect size in visuospatial memory and non-significant with medium size, for verbal memory. Additionally, the Raven’s Matrices test was applied to determine effects of training on intelligence, finding no significant difference. Therefore, it is concluded that training based on multimedia routines did not generate gains in intelligence or in working memory, in its verbal domain, although it did in its visual-spatial domain. However, the results must be taken with reservations, due to the limitation represented by the size of the sample, which, if corrected in future interventions, may enrich the findings on the means to improve working memory.

Working memory: effects of its training based on multimedia routines

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the impact of a training program on the level of working memory in a sample of university students. For this, a quasi-experimental study with an active control group was implemented in 29 students of basic teaching and computer systems, applying complex span tasks before and after the intervention. For training, multimedia routines were used for the experimental group and an academic essay elaboration workshop for the control group. The pre-test confirmed intergroup statistical equality for all the measurements used and the post-test, in favor of the experimental group, detected significant difference and large effect size in visuospatial memory and non-significant with medium size, for verbal memory. Additionally, the Raven’s Matrices test was applied to determine effects of training on intelligence, finding no significant difference. Therefore, it is concluded that training based on multimedia routines did not generate gains in intelligence or in working memory, in its verbal domain, although it did in its visual-spatial domain. However, the results must be taken with reservations, due to the limitation represented by the size of the sample, which, if corrected in future interventions, may enrich the findings on the means to improve working memory.

Behavioural and ERP Effects of Cognitive and Combined Cognitive and Physical Training on Working Memory and Executive Function in Healthy Older Adults

Cognitive and physical training have been shown to be effective in improving older adults’ cognition. However, it is not yet clear whether combined cognitive and physical training offers an advantage compared to cognitive training alone. Twenty-two older adults performed cognitive or combined cognitive and physical training in order to compare their effects on working memory event-related potentials (ERPs) and on working memory and executive function performance. Before and after eight weeks of training, performance in Plus Minus, Flanker, Updated Span, and Complex Span tasks was measured, and ERPs were registered during performance of an n-back task (0-back, 2-back, and 3-back). Post-training behavioural improvement was observed in Updated Span, Complex Span, and n-back tasks. During the n-back task, the N2/P3 complex was modulated by training, with a decrease in N2 amplitude and an increase in P3 amplitude in the post-training session compared to the pretraining session. These changes in ERP components suggest that both types of training potentially reduce the need for attentional control to perform the tasks correctly and increase working memory capacity. Thus, based on our data, no conclusion can be reached on the direct advantage of combined training, either at behavioural or at neural level. However, the present study might suggest an indirect advantage of such a combined training, because the cognitive benefit was found to be highly similar in both types of training. Using combined cognitive and physical training may produce a potential improvement in general fitness and an increased appeal of training.

Ultra-brief Ambulatory Assessment of Working Memory Capacity via Smart Phones

The development of mobile technology with substantial computing power (i.e. smart phones) has enabled the adaptation of performance-based cognitive assessments to remote administration and novel intensive longitudinal study designs (e.g. measurement burst designs). While an “ambulatory” cognitive assessment paradigm provides new opportunities to extend current psychological theories, the adaptation of conventional measures to a mobile format conducive to intensive repeated measurement involves balancing measurement precision, administration time, and procedural consistency. Across 3 studies, we developed mobile adaptations of computerized ‘complex span’ tasks to assess working memory capacity (WMC) and examined their validity, reliability, and sufficiency. Study 1 examined the convergent and criterion validity of a single administration of 3 ultra-brief complex span tasks on smart phones in a laboratory setting (ambulatory Operation Span, Symmetry Span, and Rotation Span tasks). Study 2 adapted the ultra-brief tasks to a 4-day measurement burst design where between- and within-person reliability was assessed over 16 repeated administrations (4 assessments/day). Study 3 involved the implementation of a single ultra-brief complex span task into a 7-day measurement burst design field study involving college students (5 assessments/day). Results of these 3 studies suggest that valid and highly reliable estimates of WMC can be obtained via smart phones, in the absence of intensive onboarding/training, in 3-6 minutes of total testing time (2 ultra-brief, mobile administrations). Considerations for future mobile cognitive assessment design and parameterization are discussed.