Hippocampal Sclerosis in Pilocarpine Epilepsy: Survival of Peptide-Containing Neurons and Learning and Memory Disturbances in the Adult NMRI Strain Mouse

The present experiments reveal the alterations of the hippocampal neuronal populations in chronic epilepsy. The mice were injected with a single dose of pilocarpine. They had status epilepticus and spontaneously recurrent motor seizures. Three months after pilocarpine treatment, the animals were investigated with the Barnes maze to determine their learning and memory capabilities. Their hippocampi were analyzed 2 weeks later (at 3.5 months) with standard immunohistochemical methods and cell counting. Every animal displayed hippocampal sclerosis. The neuronal loss was evaluated with neuronal-N immunostaining, and the activation of the microglia was measured with Iba1 immunohistochemistry. The neuropeptide Y, parvalbumin, and calretinin immunoreactive structures were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed in the hippocampal formation. The results were compared statistically to the results of the control mice. We detected neuronal loss and strongly activated microglia populations. Neuropeptide Y was significantly upregulated in the sprouting axons. The number of parvalbumin- and calretinin-containing interneurons decreased significantly in the Ammon’s horn and dentate gyrus. The epileptic animals displayed significantly worse learning and memory functions. We concluded that degeneration of the principal neurons, a numerical decrease of PV-containing GABAergic neurons, and strong peptidergic axonal sprouting were responsible for the loss of the hippocampal learning and memory functions.

Chronic Seizures Worsen Cognitive Function with Loss of Presenilin 2 Function in a Sex-Related Manner

Patients with early-onset Alzheimer's disease (EOAD) are at elevated risk for seizures, including patients with variants in presenilin 2 (PSEN2). Like patients with epilepsy, untreated seizures may also worsen cognitive function in AD. We therefore sought to define the impact of loss of normal PSEN2 function and chronic seizures on cognitive function in the aged brain. Male and female PSEN2 KO and age- and sex-matched wild-type (WT) mice were sham or corneal kindled beginning at 6-months-old. Kindled and sham-kindled mice were then challenged up to 6 weeks later in a battery of cognitive tests: non-habituated open field (OF), T-maze spontaneous alternation (TM), and Barnes maze (BM), followed by immunohistochemistry for markers of neuroinflammation and neuroplasticity. PSEN2 KO mice required significantly more stimulations to kindle (males: p<0.02; females: p<0.02). Chronic seizures more significantly worsened anxiety-like behaviors of female PSEN2 KO mice as measured by percentage of total time exploring the center of an OF. TM performance was significantly worsened in kindled female (p=0.024), but not male, PSEN2 KO mice. Male BM performance was generally worsened by seizures (p=0.038), but not by genotype. Conversely, kindled PSEN2 KO females made the most BM errors (p=0.007). Chronic seizures also significantly altered expression of hippocampal neuroinflammation and neuroplasticity markers in a sex-specific manner. This study demonstrates that hippocampus-dependent cognitive function may be only worsened by uncontrolled chronic seizures in female, but not male, PSEN2 KO mice. Our work aligns with clinical evidence of sex-specific worsening of AD burden and supports sex-specific anticonvulsant interventions in AD.

Explosion-Induced Neurotrauma (Pathophysiological and Patomorphological Features)

The article presents the results of pathophysiological and pathomorphological features which were studied in experimental blust-induced neurotrauma in rats. The relevance of this study is associated with the frequent blust neurotrauma resulting from the use of explosives in military conflicts. At the same time, neurotrauma is more common, which is clinically manifested by cognitive impairment, even with mild and moderate severity. This, in turn, leads to complications and disability for young people. The purpose of the work was to study the consequences of the air-shock wave influence on the functional and morphological states of the central nervous system. Materials and methods. The studies were carried out on 36 white male Wistar rats 5-7 months old, weighing 180-220 g. The rats were divided into two groups: I – experimental group (n=18), the animals of which were anesthetized with halothane, fixed and explosion-induced neurotraum was simulated by generating a baroacoustic wave with an excess pressure of 26.4 ± 3.6 kPa. II group was a control group (n=18). Functional changes were investigated in the Barnes maze. For pathomorphological examination, brain sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The animals were kept in standard conditions and in the standard diet of the vivarium, all studies were conducted in accordance with modern international requirements and norms of humane treatment of animals (Council of Europe Convention dated 18.03.1986 (Strasbourg); Helsinki Declaration 1975, revised and supplemented in 2000, Law of Ukraine dated 21.02.2006 No. 3447-IV), which is evidenced by an extract from the protocols of the meeting of the commission on biomedical ethics. Results and discussion. Analysis of the results of memory studies in the Barnes maze showed a significant (Р <0.05) increase in the latent time of entering the shelter in rats of the experimental group in the acute and early post-traumatic period, which indicates memory impairment. General characteristics of the rats behavior in the experimental group showed an increase in anxiety and disorientation. The increase in research on "fake shelters" and the chaotic movement around the facility was evidenced. Analysis of frontal histological sections of the rat brain in the dynamics of the explosion-induced neurotrauma development showed the presence of characteristic signs in the form of diffuse microhemorrhages in the hippocampus zone in the acute period of injury, diffuse areas of perivascular and pericellular edema in the early post-traumatic period and paretic dilated capillaries in the structure of the cerebral region on 2nd-3rd week of the post-traumatic period. Conclusion. Thus, quantitative (increased latent time) and qualitative (increased anxiety) signs of impaired orientational-spatial memory and the development of specific pathomorphological signs of explosive brain damage in rats of the experimental group were established

Chronic Social Defeat During Adolescence Induces Short- and Long-Term Behavioral and Neuroendocrine Effects in Male Swiss-Webster Mice

Chronic stress exposure during adolescence is a significant risk factor for the development of depression. Chronic social defeat (CSD) in rodents is an animal model of depression with excellent ethological, predictive, discriminative, and face validity. Because the CSD model has not been thoroughly examined as a model of stress-induced depression within the adolescence stage, the present study analyzed the short- and long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine effects of CSD during early adolescence. Therefore, adolescent male Swiss-Webster (SW) mice were exposed to the CSD model from postnatal day (PND) 28 to PND37. Twenty-four hours (mid-adolescence) or 4 weeks (early adulthood) later, mice were tested in two models of depression; the social interaction test (SIT) and forced swimming test (FST); cognitive deficits were evaluated in the Barnes maze (BM). Finally, corticosterone and testosterone content was measured before, during, and after CSD exposure, and serotonin transporter (SERT) autoradiography was studied after CSD in adolescent and adult mice. CSD during early adolescence induced enduring depression-like behaviors as inferred from increased social avoidance and immobility behavior in the SIT and FST, respectively, which correlated in an age-dependent manner with SERT binding in the hippocampus; CSD during early adolescence also induced long-lasting learning and memory impairments in the Barnes maze (BM). Finally, CSD during early adolescence increased serum corticosterone levels in mid-adolescence and early adulthood and delayed the expected increase in serum testosterone levels observed at this age. In conclusion: (1) CSD during early adolescence induced long-lasting depression-like behaviors, (2) sensitivity of SERT density during normal brain development was revealed, (3) CSD during early adolescence induced enduring cognitive deficits, and (4) results highlight the vulnerability of the adolescent brain to social stressors on the adrenal and gonadal axes, which emphasizes the importance of an adequate interaction between both axes during adolescence for normal development of brain and behavior.

Mitochondrial Fusion Suppresses Tau Pathology-Induced Neurodegeneration and Cognitive Decline

Background: Abnormalities of mitochondrial fission and fusion, dynamic processes known to be essential for various aspects of mitochondrial function, have repeatedly been reported to be altered in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Neurofibrillary tangles are known as a hallmark feature of AD and are commonly considered a likely cause of neurodegeneration in this devastating disease. Objective: To understand the pathological role of mitochondrial dynamics in the context of tauopathy. Methods: The widely used P301S transgenic mice of tauopathy (P301S mice) were crossed with transgenic TMFN mice with the forced expression of Mfn2 specifically in neurons to obtain double transgenic P301S/TMFN mice. Brain tissues from 11-month-old non-transgenic (NTG), TMFN, P301S, and P301S/TMFN mice were analyzed by electron microscopy, confocal microscopy, immunoblot, histological staining, and immunostaining for mitochondria, tau pathology, and tau pathology-induced neurodegeneration and gliosis. The cognitive function was assessed by the Barnes maze. Results: P301S mice exhibited mitochondrial fragmentation and a consistent decrease in Mfn2 compared to age-matched NTG mice. When P301S mice were crossed with TMFN mice (P301S/TMFN mice), neuronal loss, as well as mitochondria fragmentation were significantly attenuated. Greatly alleviated tau hyperphosphorylation, filamentous aggregates, and thioflavin-S positive tangles were also noted in P301S/TMFN mice. Furthermore, P301S/TMFN mice showed marked suppression of neuroinflammation and improved cognitive performance in contrast to P301S mice. Conclusion: These in vivo findings suggest that promoted mitochondrial fusion suppresses toxic tau accumulation and associated neurodegeneration, which may protect against the progression of AD and related tauopathies.

Secondary hypoxic ischemia alters neurobehavioral outcomes, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in mice exposed to controlled cortical impact

Objective Hypoxic ischemia (HI) is a secondary insult that can cause fatal neurologic outcomes after traumatic brain injury (TBI), ranging from mild cognitive deficits to persistent vegetative states. We here aimed to unravel the underlying pathological mechanisms of HI injury in a TBI mouse model.Methods Neurobehavior, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress were assessed in a mouse model of controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury followed by HI. Mice underwent CCI alone, CCI followed by HI, HI alone, or sham operation. HI was induced by one-vessel carotid ligation with 1 hour of 8% oxygen in nitrogen. Learning and memory were assessed using the novel object recognition test, contextual and cued fear conditioning, and Barnes maze test. Brain cytokine production and oxidative stress-related components were measured.Results Compared to TBI-only animals, TBI followed by HI mice exhibited significantly poorer survival and health scores, spatial learning and memory in the Barnes maze test, discrimination memory in the novel object recognition test, and fear memory following contextual and cued fear conditioning. Malondialdehyde levels were significantly lower, whereas glutathione peroxidase activity was significantly higher in TBI followed by HI mice compared to TBI-only and sham counterparts, respectively. Interleukin-6 levels were significantly higher in TBI followed by HI mice compared to both TBI-only and sham animals.Conclusion Post-traumatic HI aggravated deficits in spatial, fear, and discrimination memory in an experimental TBI mouse model. Our results suggest that increased neuroinflammation and oxidative stress contribute to HI-induced neurobehavioral impairments after TBI.

Cyclopentanone Derivative Attenuates Memory Impairment by Inhibiting Amyloid Plaques Formation in the 5xFAD Mice

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder. This study was designed to investigate the effects of cyclopentanone derivative i.e., 2-(hydroxyl-(3-nitrophenyl)methyl)cyclopentanone (3NCP) on behavior, amyloid β (Aβ) plaque deposition, and βAPP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE-1) expression in the 5xFAD mouse brain. In this study, computational studies were conducted to predict the binding mode of the 3NCP with target sites of the β-secretase. In vivo studies were performed on the 5xFAD mice model of AD using different behavioral test models like light/dark box, elevated plus maze (EPM), and the Barnes maze tests for the assessment of anxiety, spatial learning and memory. The thioflavin-S staining, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and RT-PCR studies were carried out to find the effect of the 3NCP on the β-amyloid plaques formation and BACE-1 expression. The results of the computational studies showed that the 3NCP has excellent binding affinities for beta-secretase. The light/dark box study depicted that the 3NCP does not cause anxiety. The 3NCP treatment effects in the EPM and Barnes maze tests showed a significant effect on learning and memory. Furthermore, the results of the thioflavin staining and IHC revealed that the 3NCP significantly reduced the formation of the beta-amyloid plaques in brain tissues. Moreover, the RT-PCR study showed that 3NCP significantly reduced the BACE-1 expression in the brain. Conclusively, the results of the current study demonstrate that the 3NCP may be a potential candidate for AD treatment in the future.

A Multivariate Assessment of Age-Related Cognitive Impairment in Octodon degus

Aging is a progressive functional decline characterized by a gradual deterioration in physiological function and behavior. The most important age-related change in cognitive function is decline in cognitive performance (i.e., the processing or transformation of information to make decisions that includes speed of processing, working memory, and learning). The purpose of this study is to outline the changes in age-related cognitive performance (i.e., short-term recognition memory and long-term learning and memory) in long-lived Octodon degus. The strong similarity between degus and humans in social, metabolic, biochemical, and cognitive aspects makes it a unique animal model for exploring the mechanisms underlying the behavioral and cognitive deficits related to natural aging. In this study, we examined young adult female degus (12- and 24-months-old) and aged female degus (38-, 56-, and 75-months-old) that were exposed to a battery of cognitive-behavioral tests. Multivariate analyses of data from the Social Interaction test or Novel Object/Local Recognition (to measure short-term recognition memory), and the Barnes maze test (to measure long-term learning and memory) revealed a consistent pattern. Young animals formed a separate group of aged degus for both short- and long-term memories. The association between the first component of the principal component analysis (PCA) from short-term memory with the first component of the PCA from long-term memory showed a significant negative correlation. This suggests age-dependent differences in both memories, with the aged degus having higher values of long-term memory ability but poor short-term recognition memory, whereas in the young degus an opposite pattern was found. Approximately 5% of the young and 80% of the aged degus showed an impaired short-term recognition memory; whereas for long-term memory about 32% of the young degus and 57% of the aged degus showed decreased performance on the Barnes maze test. Throughout this study, we outlined age-dependent cognitive performance decline during natural aging in degus. Moreover, we also demonstrated that the use of a multivariate approach let us explore and visualize complex behavioral variables, and identified specific behavioral patterns that allowed us to make powerful conclusions that will facilitate further the study on the biology of aging. In addition, this study could help predict the onset of the aging process based on behavioral performance.

Cannabidiol Exposure During the Mouse Adolescent Period Is Without Harmful Behavioral Effects on Locomotor Activity, Anxiety, and Spatial Memory

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-intoxicating phytocannabinoid whose purported therapeutic benefits and impression of a high safety profile has promoted its increasing popularity. CBD’s popularity is also increasing among children and adolescents who are being administered CBD, off label, for the treatment of numerous symptoms associated with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, and depression. The relative recency of its use in the adolescent population has precluded investigation of its impact on the developing brain and the potential consequences that may present in adulthood. Therefore, there’s an urgency to identify whether prolonged adolescent CBD exposure has substantive impacts on the developing brain that impact behavioral and cognitive processes in adulthood. Here, we tested the effect of twice-daily intraperitoneal administrations of CBD (20 mg/kg) in male and female C57BL/6J mice during the adolescent period of 25–45 days on weight gain, and assays for locomotor behavior, anxiety, and spatial memory. Prolonged adolescent CBD exposure had no detrimental effects on locomotor activity in the open field, anxiety behavior on the elevated plus maze, or spatial memory in the Barnes Maze compared to vehicle-treated mice. Interestingly, CBD-treated mice had a faster rate of learning in the Barnes Maze. However, CBD-treated females had reduced weight gain during the exposure period. We conclude that prolonged adolescent CBD exposure in mice does not have substantive negative impacts on a range of behaviors in adulthood, may improve the rate of learning under certain conditions, and impacts weight gain in a sex-specific manner.