This article examines the concept of proterrence: scaring people into doing something to stop others from doing something bad. This contrasts to deterrence, which involves threatening persons to not do something bad. The tobacco ban in Amsterdam coffeeshops and, more specifically, coffeeshop personnel's reaction to it is used as the empirical vessel to examine proterrence. Proterrence permits examination of the interface between order maintenance and social control against a backdrop of perceived sanction illegitimacy. It also permits exploration of the process by which formal sanctions thread through informal mechanisms—where that threading is enforcement rather than consequence-based and where rule implementers face the brunt of the sanction that a third party violates. Data are based on in-depth fieldwork in Amsterdam coffeeshops. The wider applicability of proterrence is discussed.
Urban scholars increasingly contend that local police departments play a central role in facilitating neighbourhood change. Recent critics warn that ‘order maintenance’ policing and other low-level law enforcement tactics are deployed in gentrifying areas to displace ‘disorderly’ populations. Despite influential qualitative case studies, there remains scant quantitative research testing this relationship, and few studies that evaluate the link between policing, displacement and gentrification. We address this lacuna, drawing on new citation data from the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and employing a measure of neighbourhood change that focuses on the displacement of low-income residents. Examining policing patterns in 978 US Census tracts in Los Angeles over four years, our analysis reveals that tracts experiencing gentrification – defined as the simultaneous increase in non-poor residents and decrease in the number of people in poverty – experience a greater number of citations compared with other tract types. Similar patterns emerge in our analysis of citations that explicitly target homelessness and extreme poverty. In post-hoc analyses, we found that Census tracts characterised by a decrease in the number of people in poverty experienced greater numbers of total police citations and of citations targeting homeless individuals, compared with other tract types. These findings carry important theoretical implications for understanding the divergent manifestations of, and potential mechanisms driving, order maintenance policing. Methodologically, we contend that police citations provide a more precise measure of order maintenance policing compared with previous studies, and that classifying neighbourhoods in terms of relative displacement of residents in poverty provides much-needed interpretive clarity.
AbstractThe maintenance of serial order information is a core component of working memory (WM). Many theoretical models assume the existence of specific serial order mechanisms. Those are considered to be independent from the linguistic system supporting maintenance of item information. This is based on studies showing that psycholinguistic factors strongly affect the ability to maintain item information, while leaving order recall relatively unaffected. Recent language-based accounts suggest, however, that the linguistic system could provide mechanisms that are sufficient for serial order maintenance. A strong version of these accounts postulates serial order maintenance as emerging from the pattern of activation occurring in the linguistic system. In the present study, we tested this assumption via a computational modeling approach by implementing a purely activation-based architecture. We tested this architecture against several experiments involving the manipulation of semantic relatedness, a psycholinguistic variable that has been shown to interact with serial order processing in a complex manner. We show that this activation-based architecture struggles to account for interactions between semantic knowledge and serial order processing. This study fails to support activated long-term memory as an exclusive mechanism supporting serial order maintenance.
Dao, T.L., Ngo, T.H., Nguyen, T.L.A. (2021). Educational purposes of Vietnam in the 21st century: For individual liberation or for social order maintenance?. In Duong, B.H., Hoang, A.D., Bui, T.M.H. (Eds.). General Education in Vietnam: Challenges, Innovation, and Change (1st ed., pp. 19-36). Hanoi: Dan Tri Publishing House.
The maintenance of serial order information is a core component of Working Memory (WM). Many theoretical models assume the existence of specific serial order mechanisms. Those are considered to be independent from the linguistic system supporting maintenance of item information. This is based on studies showing that psycholinguistic factors strongly affect the ability to maintain item information, while leaving order recall relatively unaffected. Recent language-based accounts suggest however that the linguistic system could provide mechanisms that are sufficient for serial order maintenance. A strong version of these accounts postulates serial order maintenance as emerging from the pattern of activation occurring in the linguistic system. In the present study, we tested this assumption via a computational modeling approach, by implementing a purely activation-based architecture. We tested this architecture against several experiments involving the manipulation of semantic relatedness, a psycholinguistic variable that has been shown to interact with serial order processing in a complex manner. We show that this activation-based architecture struggles to account for interactions between semantic knowledge and serial order processing. This study fails to support activated long-term memory as an exclusive mechanism supporting serial order maintenance.
The purpose of the article is to study the issues of improving the protection of public order during the preparation and conduct of elections of senior officials of Russia by all participants in the electoral process within the competence defined by law.
According to the postindustrial policing thesis, cities that use cultural development strategies to attract new residents and visitors rely on order maintenance policing tactics to reinforce middle-class perspectives of safety and civility. This study applies that thesis to understand how shifting social structural dynamics influence the policing of fare evasion across the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority subway system. In accordance with the postindustrial perspective, results indicate that order maintenance policing is most intense at stations located in gentrifying neighborhoods; and, at the average station this form of policing is overwhelmingly directed towards Black and Latinx riders. Collectively, study findings suggest that mass transit in gentrifying areas represents a disputed resource that is policed in the interests of urban revitalization. Moreover, this treatment of fare evasion joins a growing body of penal remedies that expands the sphere of public social control, and further marginalizes disenfranchised groups.
This chapter looks at other parts of the world that were mainly absorbed into European empires and what this meant for their experience of policing. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century colonists tended to see native peoples as primitive and without any of their own ‘civilized’ ideas and institutions like police. As a result, and where possible, they increasingly re-created versions of the police in their homelands when they arrived in the virgin lands which they intended either to exploit or to make their new homes. A re-creation of the police deployed in the metropole was claimed to be something towards which the empires were moving, especially during the nineteenth century. It was assumed to be another aspect of the white Europeans’ civilizing process. Yet a police similar to that at home was most often to be found in the colonial towns and cities where white men made the city their own and were seen as requiring the same kind of police protection and order maintenance. The indigenous peoples, especially those living nomadic lifestyles, were thought to require something different, and, while some of the white men deployed to deal with them might be called ‘police’, their organization and behaviour were often far away from Europeans’ behaviour in their lands of origin.
Abstract
This study examines the police officer’s contemporary views of dealing with minor order-maintenance problems. Their views of problem-solving go beyond situational, neighbourhood and individual variables. Officers might also consider ‘audience legitimacy’ when forming their opinion of problem-solving. A quasi-experimental vignette research design was used to gauge a police officer’s views of rudimentary order-maintenance activity. Police officers of various ranks, and from a range of different sized police agencies, responded to an online survey, resulting in an N of 473. The dependent variable asked respondents their level of agreement with the actions of an officer described in a vignette. Respondents disagreed with an officer’s decision to ignore an order-maintenance problem. The neighbourhood crime characteristics were not related to their judgements about the decisions of the vignette officer. The type of nuisance crime event described in the vignette was related to the respondent’s level of agreement, but only at the 0.10 level. The respondent’s audience legitimacy score was correlated with several officer characteristics, but the relationship disappeared in the regression analysis. The findings are discussed in relation to prior research, and suggestions are made for multidimensional policing research.
The everyday reality of private security work in Sweden: negotiations at the front line of public order maintenance
