Associations of Early Adolescents’ Best Friendships, Peer Groups, and Coolness With Overt and Relational Aggression

This study examined associations of best friend and peer group aggressive characteristics with students’ overt and relational aggression, and whether coolness moderated these associations across the fall and spring of the first year in middle school. Students ( N = 174; 57% females) self-reported best friendship and peer group members, as well as peer-nominated coolness and aggression (overt, relational). Results indicated positive relations of best friend and peer group aggressive characteristics with subsequent aggression, and that coolness moderated these associations. Specifically, non-cool youth had higher levels of subsequent overt and relational aggression with aggressive best friends, but lower levels of later relational aggression when in relationally aggressive peer groups. In contrast, cool youth had lower levels of subsequent relational aggression with relationally aggressive best friends, but higher levels of later relational aggression when in relationally aggressive peer groups. Implications for examining multiple peer contexts and coolness during early adolescence are discussed.

The role of norm salience in aggression socialization among friends: Distinctions between physical and relational aggression

Socialization among aggressive friends is believed to play a critical role in the development of aggressive behavior. This study examined the moderating effect of norm salience in the classroom on the association between reciprocal friends’ and children’s own physical, relational, and general aggression. A total of 713 children ( M = 10.32 years, SD = 0.99) in grades 4 to 6 completed a peer nomination inventory in the fall and spring of the same academic year. Norm salience was operationalized as the class- and sex-specific correlation between each form of aggression and social preference. Norm salience moderated relational aggression socialization among friends only for highly relationally aggressive girls. Specifically, socialization was exacerbated when norm salience was favorable and attenuated when norm salience was unfavorable, suggesting that highly relationally aggressive girls may possess skills allowing them to adapt to the social context in which they and their friends interact. In contrast, boys’ general aggression socialization was exacerbated when norm salience was neutral or unfavorable, suggesting that boys who affiliate with aggressive friends may be more susceptible to aggressive friends’ influence in general and especially in the context of potential peer rejection. No moderating effect of norm salience was found in regards to physical aggression socialization. Results suggest that interventions aimed at changing acceptability of aggression in the classroom may only be effective in specific subgroups of aggressive youth.

Relational Aggressiveness in Adolescence: Relations With Emotional Awareness and Self-Control

Involvement in relationally aggressive conduct is an important contributor to maladaptive functioning in both childhood and adulthood. Decreased emotional awareness and impairments of self-control are risk factors for relational aggressiveness, while emotional awareness can also be treated as an important prerequisite for proper self-control. The aim of the study was to examine the associations between dimensions of emotional awareness (attention to emotions and emotional clarity), self-control, and relational aggressiveness. Self-control was also examined as a mediating variable between emotional awareness and relational aggressiveness. Self-report measures of trait meta-mood, alexithymia, self-control, and relational aggressiveness were completed by 214 adolescents (129 females), aged 15–23. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed two factors of emotional awareness: (1) inattention to emotions (reflecting low attention to emotions and externally oriented thinking) and (2) a lack of emotional clarity (reflecting difficulties in identifying emotion, difficulties in describing emotion, and low clarity of emotion). Self-control and mood repair ability inversely correlated with proactive and reactive relational aggressiveness, whereas the clarity component of the meta-mood trait only inversely predicted reactive relational aggressiveness. Structural equation modeling (SEM) showed that direct relationships between inattention to emotions and relational aggressiveness, as well as between lack of emotional clarity and relational aggressiveness were non-significant. Nevertheless, a lack of emotional clarity was indirectly and significantly associated with relational aggressiveness through decreased self-control.

Relational Aggression in Sibling Relationships

Given the uniqueness of siblings, it is important to consider the presence and role of relational aggression within the sibling relationship. Due to the time spent together and the information disclosed between siblings, during conflict, such information could be used in threatening or relationally aggressive ways. Relationally aggressive actions do not pose a threat to end the sibling relationship, making it a safe relationship to practice such strategies. While parents are likely to be aware of physical aggression between siblings, and attempt to stop it, relational aggression may be difficult for parents to catch and address, reinforcing its effectiveness as a strategy of control. This chapter describes the developmental course of relational aggression within the sibling relationship, as well as associations between relational aggression in the sibling relationship and relationships with others. Finally, we highlight the conclusions and limitations of this research and offer ideas for future research directions.

The Peer Nature of Relational Aggression

Relational aggression (RA), which involves the manipulation of a target’s relationships, peer status, or reputation, is an inherently interpersonal weapon. This chapter focuses on the peer context of RA, and addresses core questions about the association between RA and social constructs such as group acceptance, rejection, popularity, and friendship. What are the interpersonal costs and benefits of RA? What factors might explain why some relationally aggressive children are able to achieve and maintain popularity and social centrality despite being disliked? How does RA play out within mutual friendships? And how do the peer dynamics surrounding RA shift across development? The chapter begins with a discussion of RA in relation to group-level peer experiences (i.e., peer liking/acceptance; disliking/rejection; perceived popularity) and then turns to an exploration of RA within the context of friendships. It concludes with a discussion of selection and influence effects in regard to relationally aggressive behavior.

Cultural Contexts of Relational Aggression

Theories and models suggest cultural influences on children’s family and peer socialization. It is conceivable, therefore, that the development of relational aggression, which is a part of developmentally salient social experiences, may appear differently, depending on cultural contexts. The goal of this chapter is to summarize cross-cultural, international studies that have examined the development of relational aggression in various cultural contexts. Specifically, studies are reviewed that have evaluated psychometric properties of measures and have explored social-cognitive processes, peer relationships, victimization experiences, and psychopathology among relationally aggressive children and adolescents across cultures. Finally, developmental and clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Examining Relational Aggression in an Individual Differences Context

Individual differences, such as normal-range personality, personality pathology, and genetics (specifically behavioral genetics), are variables or constructs that can be used to distinguish people. Individual differences have also been used to understand differences in antisocial behavior, including relational aggression, and can help inform the scientific conceptualization of this behavior. This chapter summarizes evidence for individual differences in relational aggression in three dimensions: normal-range personality, personality pathology, and behavioral genetics. Relationally aggressive behaviors are associated with normal-range personality traits, including high negative affect and low interpersonal and intrapersonal self-regulation. Relational aggression also overlaps with personality pathology. With regard to genetics, relational aggression can be explained by genetic factors and also shows substantial influences from environmental factors. Taken together, relational aggression is probably influenced by a number of internal and external factors, and individual differences research highlights potential heterogeneity in the construct.

Maladaptive Personality and Neuropsychological Features of Highly Relationally Aggressive Adolescent Girls

The maladaptive personality and neuropsychological features of highly relationally aggressive females were examined in a group of 30 grade 6, 7, and 8 girls and group-matched controls. Employing a multistage cluster sampling procedure a group of highly, yet almost exclusively, relationally aggressive females were identified and matched on a number of variables to a group of nonaggressive females. Parents of the students in both groups completed the Coolidge Personality and Neuropsychological Inventory, a 200-item DSM-IV-TR aligned, parent-as-respondent, standardized measure of children’s psychological functioning. It was found that high levels of relational aggression, in the absence of physical and verbal aggression, were associated with symptoms of DSM-IV-TR Axis I oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. The highly relationally aggressive group also exhibited a wide variety of personality traits associated with DSM-IV-TR Axis II paranoid, borderline, narcissistic, histrionic, schizotypal, and passive aggressive personality disorders that were not exhibited by the matched controls. Implications of these findings are discussed.