Do Childhood Conduct Problems Predict Negative Outcomes in Adolescence? A Longitudinal Analysis

The primary purpose of this study was to conduct a prospective ­­­examination of the relationship between childhood conduct problems and five outcomes in adolescence– namely, Physically violent offenses; Non-violent offenses; Deviant lifestyle; Consumption of tobacco, cannabis, or alcohol; and Meeting the symptom count diagnostic criteria for Conduct Disorder (CD) – while controlling for a series of sociodemographic factors, family characteristics and adolescent experiences. Logistic regression analyses were used to determine if childhood conduct problems in the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY) Cycle 1 contributed to negative outcomes in adolescence in NLSCY Cycle 4. This was a prospective, population-based study of 3,725 adolescents (12-15 years old) in the NLSCY Cycle 4 (2000-2001) who were 6-9 years old in NLSCY Cycle 1 (1994-95). Childhood conduct problems were found to be associated with Non-violent offenses and Consumption of tobacco, cannabis, or alcohol in adolescence, but they were not found to be associated with Physically violent offenses or Deviant lifestyle in adolescence. Furthermore, children with conduct problems before the age of 10 were more likely to meet the symptom count diagnostic criteria for CD in adolescence.

Parent-to-Child Violence: Does Gender Matter in Sentencing Decisions?

The purpose was to examine gender differences (a) in the sentencing severity for parent-to-child violence (PCV); and (b) in severity of PCV patterns. We analyzed 99 verdict cases in Israel. Two models, a logistic regression model and a generalized ordered logistic regression model, were applied. The findings of the first model indicated that being a woman reduced the odds of imprisonment by .106; furthermore, being tried after implementation of the 2012 reform in judicial discretion in sentencing significantly increased the odds of sentence severity by 2.85. The second model indicated that women had lower odds of being involved in severe violent offenses against their minor children compared with men ( OR = 0.31). The findings highlight the source of sentencing differentials.

Legal Financial Obligations and Probation: Findings from the 1995 Survey of Adults on Probation

During the late 20th century, imprisonment rates in the United States saw unprecedented growth, leading correctional systems across the country to face widespread overcrowding and underfunding. Subsequently, policy makers sought out alternatives to incarceration for certain categories of offenses. Community supervision, such as probation, emerged as a popular solution to both reduce prison and jail populations as well as to generate revenue to fund the rapidly expanding legal system. With the rise in community supervision came increases in the number of people on probation for lower-level and non-violent offenses. The expansion of legal financial obligations (LFO) placed additional burdens on these persons, who disproportionately sit in lower socio-economic status brackets. Using data from the 1995 Survey of Adults on Probation (SAP), the current study adds to the literature on probation and LFOs in an important way. The SAP data contain information on the amount, frequency, and type of LFO. Thus, this paper examines the distinct types of LFOs to determine the differential burden that each type of LFO has on people on probation. This paper finds that of all types of fees, those associated with victim restitution are most likely to lead to missed payments, while those that generate revenues do not contribute significantly to missed payments. This paper discusses the implications of this for procedural justice and fairness.

Assessing the Victimizaton-Offending Hypothesis of Sexual and Non-Sexual Violence in a Nationally Representative Sample of Incarcerated Men in the United States: Implications for Trauma-Informed Practice in Correctional Settings

Rates of exposure to sexual and non-sexual physical violence and other adverse childhood events are greater among people who are incarcerated with convictions for offenses related to sexual and non-sexual violence compared to other incarcerated populations and the general community. Few studies have differentiated which types of prior adverse experiences are greatest predictors of sexual and non-sexual violent offenses. The following study investigated associations between experiencing sexual abuse as a child or adult; experiencing non-sexual physical violence during childhood, adulthood, or both; having a caretaker who uses drugs; being in foster care; growing up in socioeconomically marginalized conditions; and the likelihood of reporting a prior physical or sexual conviction. The sample consisted of 13,604 men incarcerated in state and federal prisons in the United States. Multinomial regression models compared convictions for sexual offenses and non-sexual violent offenses to all other crimes. A model also compared sexual offenses to non-sexual violent offenses to differentiate between types of adverse childhood experiences associated with sexual versus non-sexual violent offending. Models adjusted for race/ethnicity, education, and age. Results suggest that exposure to violence during childhood was significantly and violence during adulthood was insignificantly associated with increased risk of conviction for a non-sexual physical offense. Sexual violence victimization as a child only was associated with increased risk of conviction for sexual violence perpetration during adulthood. Foster care involvement was associated with increased risk of being convicted for a non-sexual violent offense. Findings suggest that different traumatic pathways may differentiate types of aggression in adulthood. Future research must evaluate if trauma-informed approaches should be catered to address the unique effects of sexual and non-sexual victimization and the perpetration of different types of aggression in adulthood.

An Empirical Investigation of Violence Against Women in the NFL

The purpose of this study was to examine violence against women (VAW) in the National Football League (NFL). Since Ray Rice assaulted his partner on video, VAW by NFL players has received more public attention. However, there is little empirical research that examines VAW in the NFL and player suspensions compared to other violations. Data come from a public list of 176 NFL players known to have violated NFL policies from 2010–2019. Four major types of violations were found: VAW included sexual assault, rape, and domestic violence; general violent behaviors included assault or battery; drug-related offenses included substance abuse, alcohol, driving under the influence (DUI's), illegal drugs, and performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs); and minor sports-related infractions included issues such as missing a team meeting. The average number of game suspensions was 4.08 for VAW offenses, 1.75 for general violent offenses, 4.05 for drug-related offenses and 1.88 for minor infractions. We found no differences in the number of game suspensions for drug-related offenses compared to VAW; general violent offenses had even fewer suspensions. These numbers are contradictory to the NFL's Personal Conduct Policy of a 6-game suspension without pay for VAW and general violence.

Sentencing Leniency for Black Offenders

In response to the racial disparities that plague the American criminal justice system, the Movement for Black Lives calls for an end to policing and punishment “as we know them.” But refusing to punish violent offenses leaves unprotected those most vulnerable to crime, and outright abolition thus appears to undermine black rights and liberties. The author calls this the decarceration dilemma. After discussing Tommie Shelby and Christopher Lewis’s attempts to resolve the dilemma, the author offers his own, which employs a procedural rather than a substantive solution. He leans on the principle of expanded asymmetry (EA), which holds that it is better to underpunish than overpunish. After defending EA, the author notes that it obtains only under conditions of uncertainty. He then shows that because virtually all trials of black offenders meet the uncertainty condition, sentencing authorities are obliged to treat black offenders leniently. This chapter concludes by noting the advantages of the proceduralist approach.

Risk Assessment and Post-Release Recidivism in a Sample of Juvenile Homicide Offenders

Given recent U.S. Supreme Court rulings regarding the constitutionality of juveniles who received mandated life sentences, questions have arisen in the field of criminology regarding how these offenders will adjust if someday released. Risk scores were calculated for 59 male juvenile homicide offenders (JHOs) based upon the eight domains in the Youth Level of Supervision/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) and used to examine recidivism among the 48 JHOs who were released. Sample subjects were charged as adults for murder and attempted murder in the 1980s, convicted, and sentenced to adult prison. Chi-square analyses were used to assess the relationship between risk score category and two measures of recidivism, which were general arrests and violent offenses. Results indicated risk scores failed to predict both general and violent recidivism. Implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Die dogmatische Stelle und die Rolle des Kindesalters in der modernen ungarischen Rechtsentwicklung

According to the provisions of the Criminal Code in force, in the case of violent offenses listed in the law, young offenders aged 12-14 who have the ability to recognize the consequences of a crime may be punished as well. Ability of discernment is not a new concept in our criminal law; this study describes the change in the content of this concept and the development of the criminal regulations on childhood, referring to the practical problems of applying the law in force.

Childhood Trauma, the Combination of MAO-A and COMT Genetic Polymorphisms and the Joy of Being Aggressive in Forensic Psychiatric Patients

Aggression and violent offenses are common amongst forensic psychiatric patients. Notably, research distinguishes two motivationally distinct dimension of aggression–instrumental and reactive aggression. Instrumental aggression comprises of appetitive, goal-directed aggressive acts, whereas reactive aggression consists of affective, defensive violence with both their biological basis remaining largely unknown. Childhood trauma and functional genetic polymorphisms in catecholamines converting enzymes, such as mono-amino-oxidase A (MAO-A) and catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) have been suggested to augment an aggressive behavioral response in adulthood. However, it warrants clarification if these factors influence one or both types of aggression. Furthermore, it remains elusive, if having a combination of unfavorable enzyme genotypes and childhood maltreatment further increases violent behavior. Hence, we set out to address these questions in the current study. First, analysis revealed an overall marginally increased frequency of the unfavorable MAO-A genotype in the test population. Second, each gene polymorphisms together with a traumatic childhood significantly increased the AFAS (Appetitive and Facilitative Aggression Scale) scores for both reactive and appetitive aggression. Third, having a combination of both disadvantageous genotypes and a negative childhood served as a minor positive predictor for increased reactive aggression, but had a strong influence on the joy of being aggressive.

Disproportionate Minority Contact: An Expanded Examination of how Threat of Violent and Sexual Offending Impacts Court Outcomes

Racial disparities in the U.S. juvenile justice system appear to be attenuated for people with sexual and violent versus drug and property offenses. Existing theories such as the racial threat hypothesis partially explain these racial disparities, but the definition of “threat” could limit our ability to explain juvenile justice outcomes across offense categories. Importantly, research often overlooks the different and unique threats associated with violent and sexual crimes. The present study examined impacts of racial threat and an expanded definition of “threat” associated with violent and sexual crime on (a) preadjudication detention and (b) dispositions of postadjudication confinement. Statewide archival court data were obtained regarding 212,274 male and female adolescents. In the full models, less severe violent (assault vs. homicide) and sexual offenses (indecent exposure and child pornography vs. sexual abuse) were associated with lower use of detention and secure confinement. This impact of specific violent and sexual offenses on court outcomes were observed in models run with Black adolescents and models separated by violent offenses and sexual offenses. Higher rates of county-level homicide prosecutions and White-to-Black unemployment were significantly and positively associated with detention and confinement, respectively. Racial threat and other theories aiming to explain racial disparities should be reexamined and modified to include markers of violent and sexual offense stigma and threat. Further, models testing racial disparities should include an expanded definition of “threat” in selecting indicators. Our suggested modified theory could better elucidate racial disparities in the juvenile justice system and presents important practice implications.