Effects of stroke on spark-ignition combustion with gasoline and methanol

Besides electrification of the powertrain, new synthetic alternative fuels with the potential to be produced from renewable sources come into focus. Methanol is the most elementary liquid synthetic fuel and no novelty for use in internal combustion engines. This article presents pathways to achieve high efficiency spark-ignition methanol combustion on a direct injection spark-ignition single-cylinder research engine with two different stroke-to-bore ratios (1.2 and 1.5) and a constant bore. In addition, two compression ratios (CRs) were investigated on each setup: CR = 10.8 using RON95 E10 gasoline fuel and a higher CR = 15 using neat methanol. In contrast to previous studies of stroke-to-bore ratio influences on SI combustion, this article aims at demonstrating how the advantages of a high stroke-to-bore ratio can be exploited by combining a long-stroke engine with increased compression ratios and methanol. The increased stroke enhances the tumble motion due to a higher piston speed and a larger compression volume which improves the mixture homogenization and combustion velocity. Moreover, the lower surface/volume ratio results in a reduced heat transfer. When using RON95E10 gasoline fuel and CR = 10.8, an efficiency gain of up to 1.6% could be achieved with the long-stroke compared to the short-stroke especially at lower engine loads. With methanol and CR = 15, an efficiency gain of up to 1.6% could be achieved with the long-stroke setup compared to the short-stroke engine. Subsequently, lean burn conditions were experimentally investigated with methanol and CR = 15. The longer stroke allowed the lean burn limit to be extended from λ = 1.9 to λ = 2.0 with an efficiency gain of up to 2.2%. A maximum indicated efficiency of 47.4% could be achieved at λ = 1.9 with methanol on the long-stroke engine with CR = 15.

Study on Indium (III) Oxide/Aluminum Thermite Energetic Composites

Thermites or composite energetic materials are mixtures made of fuel and oxidizer particles at micron-scale. Thermite reactions are characterized by high adiabatic flame temperatures (>1000 °C) and high heats of reaction (>kJ/cm3), sometimes combined with gas generation. These properties strongly depend on the chemical nature of the couple of components implemented. The present work focuses on the use of indium (III) oxide nanoparticles as oxidizer in the elaboration of nanothermites. Mixed with an aluminum nanopowder, heat of reaction of the resulting Al/In2O3 energetic nanocomposite was calculated and its reactive performance (sensitivity thresholds regarding different stimuli (impact, friction, and electrostatic discharge) and combustion velocity examined. The Al/In2O3 nanothermite, whose heat of reaction was determined of about 11.75 kJ/cm3, was defined as insensitive and moderately sensitive to impact and friction stimuli and extreme sensitive to spark with values >100 N, 324 N, and 0.31 mJ, respectively. The spark sensitivity was decreased by increasing In2O3 oxidizer (27.71 mJ). The combustion speed in confined geometries experiments was established near 500 m/s. The nature of the oxidizer implemented herein within a thermite formulation is reported for the first time.

Characterization of the turbulent flame front surface in spark ignition engines during spark ignition operation to identify controlled auto-ignition and abnormal combustion

The combustion diagnostics and subsequent analysis are standardized tools based on the estimation of the heat release law (HRL). From this estimation, the different combustion parameters can be obtained: combustion phasing and duration, heat release rate, and so on. This analysis might be usually enough to study traditional spark ignition (SI) engines. However, with the new upcoming SI engines, this is probably not the case anymore, since different combustion modes can be operated in the same engine, as for instance a combination of SI and controlled auto-ignition (CAI) combustion modes. When different combustion modes are combined, it seems interesting to study in more depth the HRL, trying to get more data and to study the differences among the diverse combustion modes. Toward this end, a methodology to go deeper in the study of the HRL is proposed in this work, consisting of, mainly quantifying and taking into account the most relevant influencing parameters: the fuel properties (mainly its lower heating value), the in-cylinder oxygen content, the density of the burned and unburned zones, the laminar combustion speed, and the turbulence effect. With the proposed methodology, a standard SI combustion, developed by a flame front, can be characterized at any given operating point. This would allow to predict which the combustion developement would be, at this operating point, assuming it to be developed by a flame front. Subsequently, this SI combustion prediction can be compared to the one obtained experimentally, making it possible to identify and analyze abnormal combustion phenomena, as well as to study the differences between a combustion developed by a flame front (SI) and by auto-ignition (CAI). Derived from this work, an alternative equation to experimentally characterize the laminar combustion velocity has also been proposed, in order to improve its applicability in a wider range of fuel/air ratios and dilution degrees.

Intermetallic/Ceramic Composites Synthesized from Al–Ni–Ti Combustion with B4C Addition

The fabrication of intermetallic/ceramic composites by combustion synthesis in the mode of self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) was investigated in the Al–Ni–Ti system with the addition of B4C. Two reaction systems were employed: one was used to produce the composites of xNiAl–2TiB2–TiC with x = 2–7, and the other was used to synthesize yNi3Al–2TiB2–TiC with y = 2–7. The reaction mechanism of the Al–Ni–Ti system was strongly influenced by the presence of B4C. The reaction of B4C with Ti was highly exothermic, so the reaction temperature and combustion velocity decreased due to increasing levels of Ni and Al in the reactant mixture. The activation energies of Ea = 110.6 and 172.1 kJ/mol were obtained for the fabrication of NiAl- and Ni3Al-based composites, respectively, by the SHS reaction. The XRD (X-ray diffraction) analysis showed an in situ formation of intermetallic (NiAl and Ni3Al) and ceramic phases (TiB2 and TiC) and confirmed no reactions taking place between Ti and Al or Ni. The microstructure of the product revealed large NiAl and Ni3Al grains and small TiB2 and TiC particles. With the addition of TiB2 and TiC, the hardness of NiAl and Ni3Al was considerably increased and the toughness was also improved.

(Ti,Cr)C-Based Cermets with Varied Nicr Binder Content via Elemental SHS for Perspective Cutting Tools

The effects of granulation of reactive mixtures Ti-Cr-C and Ti-Cr-C-Ni on the combustion temperature and velocity, as well as phase composition and mechanical properties (crushing ability) of combustion products, were studied. Granulation was associated with a 1.5-fold increase in combustion velocity, caused by a nearly 10-fold increase in gas permeability. Secondary reactions between TiC, Cr7C3, and molten Ni led to the formation of (Ti,Cr)C FCC solid solution and Ni2.88Cr1.12 intermetallics. After the combustion of Ti-Cr-C-Ni mixtures, prolonged fluorescence was registered, suggesting the exothermic nature of secondary phase formation reactions. The introduction of the nickel binder decreased the content of Cr in the solid solution (Ti,Cr)C owing to the formation of the Ni2.88Cr1.12 phase. To prevent the Cr depletion from the carbide solid solution, Ni-20%Cr binder was added to the granulated 80%(Ti + C)/20%(3Cr + 2C) mixture. Combustion of granulated mixture yielded brittle porous sinter cake, which was easy to crush and mill, whereas the combustion products from the powdered mixtures were more ductile and harder to crush.

Mechanism of the ultrasound influence on combustion and structure formation at SHS in titanium-base systems

Using the developed experimental setup, the effect of ultrasonic oscillations (USO) on the temperature and combustion velocity during self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) in the Ti–C, Ti–C–Ni–Mo and Ti–B systems is studied. Basing on the analysis of data known in literature and our own measurements, theoretical explanation to the observed results is proposed. The effect of the intensity of ultrasonic oscillations on the composition and structure of the final synthesis products is established. It was found that along with changes in the parameters of the combustion wave, the completeness of the interaction increases, and changes in the microstructure and phase composition of the reaction products occur. The concept of separation of the effect of USO on SHS into thermal, or macroscopic, and non-thermal, or microscopic is proposed. The former is associated with forced convection of gas around an oscillating specimen and leads to a decrease in temperature and combustion velocity. The latter is connected with a change in the melt spreading conditions, the progress of heterogeneous reactions and mass transfer in the liquid phase in the high-temperature zone of the SHS wave, which lead to a change in the phase composition and structure of the final product.

Combustion characteristics of and bench test on “gasoline + alternative fuel”

In this study, an evaporative premixed constant-volume combustion system was designed for combustion of liquid fuels, compared with a traditional constant-volume firebomb. The effects of an alternative fuel of gasoline on the combustion characteristics of the laminar flame of gasoline were analyzed, and then a bench test was carried out. The results show that the addition of an alternative fuel of gasoline makes the maximum non-stretched flame propagation velocity of combusting gasoline increasingly close to that of combusting diluted mixed gas. The Markstein lengths of gasoline and ?gasoline + alternative fuel? become shorter with a higher equivalence ratio, and flame combustion becomes increasingly unstable. The laminar combustion velocity of ?gasoline + alternative fuel? rises first and then declines as the equivalence ratio increases. According to the results of the bench test, adding 20% of the alternative fuel into gasoline will exert little impact on the power performance and fuel consumption of the engine, but it will reduce HC emission by 25% and CO emission by 67%.

Formation of Mo5Si3/Mo3Si–MgAl2O4 Composites via Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis

In situ formation of intermetallic/ceramic composites composed of molybdenum silicides (Mo5Si3 and Mo3Si) and magnesium aluminate spinel (MgAl2O4) was conducted by combustion synthesis with reducing stages in the mode of self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS). The SHS process combined intermetallic combustion between Mo and Si with metallothermic reduction of MoO3 by Al in the presence of MgO. Experimental evidence showed that combustion velocity and temperature decreased with increasing molar content of Mo5Si3 and Mo3Si, and therefore, the flammability limit determined for the reaction at Mo5Si3 or Mo3Si/MgAl2O4 = 2.0. Based upon combustion wave kinetics, the activation energies, Ea = 68.8 and 63.8 kJ/mol, were deduced for the solid-state SHS reactions producing Mo5Si3– and Mo3Si–MgAl2O4 composites, respectively. Phase conversion was almost complete after combustion, with the exception of trivial unreacted Mo existing in both composites and a minor amount of Mo3Si in the Mo5Si3–MgAl2O4 composite. Both composites display a dense morphology formed by connecting MgAl2O4 crystals, within which micro-sized molybdenum silicide grains were embedded. For equimolar Mo5Si3– and Mo3Si–MgAl2O4 composites, the hardness and fracture toughness are 14.6 GPa and 6.28 MPa m1/2, and 13.9 GPa and 5.98 MPa m1/2, respectively.