KONSEP UANG DALAM ISLAM

Dari pembahasan yang dijabarkan, dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa Uang adalah benda-benda yang disetujui oleh masyarakat sebagai alat perantara untuk mengadakan tukar menukar/perdagangan. Disetujui adalah terdapat kata sepakat di antara anggota-anggota masyarakat untuk menggunakan satu atau beberapa benda sebagai alat perantara dalam kegiatan tukar menukar.Perbedaan konsep uang dalam ekonomi Islam dan konvensional terdapat pada uang yang tidak identik dengan modal, uang adalah public goods, modal adalah private goods, uang adalah flow concept, dan modal adalah stock concept dalam konsep uang secara Islam. Sedangkan konsep uang dalam konvensional yaitu uang seringkali diidentikkan dengan modal, uang (modal) adalah private goods, Uang (modal) adalah flow concept bagi Fisher, dan Uang (modal) adalah stock concept bagi Cambridge School.Kemudian dalam perubahan fungsi uang terbagi menjadi tiga yaitu commodity money atau uang barang, token money atau uang kertas serta deposit money atau uang giral.

PRINUDNO PRIBAVLjANjE DOBARA I USLUGA SA OSVRTOM NA EKSPROPRIJACIJU (osnovne postavke)

In this paper, the author deals with the issue of forced acquisition of goods and services. The topic is approached both according to positive law and from the historical aspect. Attention is paid to various forms of confiscation of property with a special analysis of the process of expropriation of private goods and services. After public procurement, expropriation is the most common type of procurement of goods and services for the benefit of the state or the wider community. Also, expropriation, on the other hand, is a forced way of transferring the property rights of a natural or legal person on immovable property in favor of the state, which is done in the public interest and with compensation (which should be fair). Other coercive ways of acquiring property for the benefit of the state (ie public entities) are: nationalization, confiscation and arondation. However, only expropriation (from the extraordinary measures mentioned in the paper) has a wider application or significance for the regular functioning of the state, ie its public administration. The author (also) looks at the types of forced acquisition of goods and services for their temporary use. Requisition for the needs of the country's defense is of wider significance. Finally, instead of a conclusion, the legal nature of expropriation was pointed out. It is an institute of mixed legal nature - administrative law nature (public law elements) and property law nature (civil law elements). However, its public law elements prevail.

Public Debt Frontier: A Python Toolkit for Analyzing Public Debt Sustainability

This study proposes a synthetic visual indicator with which to perform debt sustainability analysis using dynamic general equilibrium models. In a single diagram, we summarized the general equilibrium relationships among economic activity, government budget, and the maximum amount of sustainable public debt. Then, we measured sustainability using the distance of actual debt from the model-consistent maximum debt. This indicator can be implemented with any DSGE model; as a backing theory, we used a neoclassical model augmented with endogenous tax revenues, disaggregated public spending, different production technologies for public and private goods, non-atomistic wage setters in public labor (unions), and a fully specified maturity curve for public bonds. We provided an example of its usage using the case of Greece during the last public debt crisis. To perform the numerical analysis, we developed original software, whose advantage is allowing an audience without expertise in DSGE models to perform general equilibrium debt sustainability analyses without requiring an understanding of the technicalities of DSGE models.

Liberalization

Liberalization is the removal of barriers to the cross-border movement of capital, goods, and people. Understanding liberalization is central to understanding how governments respond to and shape the global economy. This article reviews the literature on liberalization from a public-goods perspective, where liberalization is seen as benefiting the population as a whole, and from a private-goods perspective, where liberalization benefits a select few. These perspectives are united by questions over who supports liberalization, when liberalization occurs, and how governments liberalize markets. The article further explores the methods and approaches used by American International Political Economy (IPE), represented by articles published in International Organization, and British IPE, represented by articles published in the Review of International Political Economy.

An Analysis of Government Interventions in Addressing Market Failures Caused by Non-Excludable and Non-Rivalrous Public Goods Based on COVID-19 Vaccination Cases

The non-excludable and non-rivalrous characteristics of public goods distinguish them from private goods. The existence of these two characteristics leads to the “free rider problem” and the variation problem, making the market supply less than the actual demand, thus causing market failure. The government should therefore intervene against this impact. At the beginning of 2020, the global outbreak of the novel COVID-19 brought significant harm to various countries, races, and groups of people. In the second half of 2020, several companies developed vaccines, which are able to fundamentally block the transmission of the virus. However, as vaccines have been reducing the severity of the epidemic in certain regions, the situation somewhat reflects non-excludability and non-rivalry, in which before officially being listed in vaccination programs, the society may have the thought of “vaccination would reduce the risk of transmission; thus, I can enjoy the reduced risk of everyone being vaccinated without paying for it.” For this reason, most countries have been purchasing vaccines for the public through government appropriations to solve the free-rider problem. It can be said that in the face of market failure caused by public goods, the government should carry out timely intervention measures, including taxation and government appropriation, to avoid negative impacts from the characteristics of public goods.

Research Insights: What Role Does Trust in Government Play in Support for Public Policies to Improve Air Pollution?

Trust in government and the perceived quality of public services are positively correlated with support for an additional tax to improve air quality. Trust in government and the perceived quality of public services are positively correlated with a preference for government retention of revenue from fees collected from polluting firms as opposed to distribution of revenue directly to citizens. Trust in government and the perceived quality of public services are not significantly correlated with citizens preferences on the allocation of those revenues between public spending and private goods.

Modernist Projects of Community-Based Urban Farms in Residential Areas—A Review of Agrarian Cooperatives in the Context of Contemporary Urban Development

This paper concerns the issue of food systems in the context of urban development. It describes relevant residential area ideas that integrate cities with food production, such as agrarian cooperatives. In the first section, modernist projects of residential areas linked with urban farms are reviewed, considering cooperative movement and the Industrial Revolution. This review shows that the aim of these historical projects was self-sufficiency and sustainability, based on local food production and broad areas covered by vegetation. They are considered to be a contemporary residential model. The second part of the paper discusses contemporary projects of farms within estates. The study demonstrates that the production of goods under urban agriculture goes beyond private goods, such as food produced for market or own use. The examples discussed show that urban farming performs key functions in residential architecture.

Organic Farming Support Policy in a Sustainable Development Context: A Polish Case Study

This paper assesses the extent, scope and importance of financial support for Polish organic farming from 2004 to 2019. The analysis focuses particularly on how the changes in the amount and structure of organic farming payments affected farmers’ interest in specific organic crops during three financing periods: the 2004–2006 Rural Development Plan, the 2007–2013 Rural Development Programme (RDP) and the 2014–2020 Rural Development Programme. This paper aims to answer the question of whether and to what extent the organic farming support policy impacted the development trends followed by, and transformation processes affecting, this sector. It follows from this analysis that in the first decade after joining the European Union, Poland implemented a policy of making payments easily available. It was primarily focused on the quantitative growth of organic farming rather than on stimulating supply. As the payments were easily accessible and decoupled from production, subsidy-oriented farmers were additionally encouraged to seek political rent. This resulted in the instability of a large group of farms who discontinued their organic farming activity in 2014. That year, the policy was amended because of the need to improve the allocation efficiency of subsidies and to couple them with the provision not only of environmental public goods but also of private goods in the form of organic farming products. The current support policy opens up greater opportunities for leveraging the potential of organic farming while reaping environmental and socioeconomic benefits and contributing more than ever to sustainable development.