Measuring cognitive effort without difficulty

An important finding in the cognitive effort literature has been that sensitivity to the costs of effort varies between individuals, suggesting that some people find effort more aversive than others. It has been suggested this may explain individual differences in other aspects of cognition; in particular that greater effort sensitivity may underlie some of the symptoms of conditions such as depression and schizophrenia. In this paper we highlight a major problem with existing measures of cognitive effort that hampers this line of research, specifically the confounding of effort and difficulty. This means that behaviour thought to reveal effort costs could equally be explained by cognitive capacity, which influences the frequency of success and thereby the chance of obtaining reward. To address this shortcoming we introduce a new test, the Number Switching Task (NST), specially designed such that difficulty will be unaffected by the effort manipulation and can easily be standardised across participants. In a large, online sample we show that these criteria are met successfully and reproduce classic effort discounting results with the NST. We also demonstrate the use of computational modelling with this task, producing behavioural parameters which can then be associated with other measures, and report a preliminary association with the Need for Cognition scale.

Development and Validation of the Holistic Cognition Scale

This paper introduces a new scale to measure cognitive cultural differences, drawing on the theory of analytic versus holistic thought. Examining culture from a cognitive perspective is a challenge to traditional values-based approaches. Existing measures based on this framework are methodologically problematic and warrant renewal. This paper presents development and validation studies for a new instrument that measures analytic versus holistic cognitive tendencies at the individual level. The scale assesses four previously established dimensions: attention, causality, contradiction, and change. The present work follows well-established scale development protocols and the results show that the 16-item Holistic Cognition Scale (HCS) is a valid and reliable measure of analytic versus holistic thought. Three new studies with four unique samples (N = 41; 272; 454; and 454) provide evidence to support the content validity, reliability, and factor structure of the new instrument, as well as its convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity against comparable constructs. Convergent validity is established against measures of compromise, intuition, complexity, and collectivism; predictive validity is established against Hofstede’s (1980) five cultural value dimensions; and discriminant validity is established using the average variance extracted from a confirmatory factor analysis. The new HCS is an improvement over previous attempts with a balanced number of forward- and reverse-scored items, superior reliability, less redundancy, and stronger factor loadings.

A-174 Diurnal Preference Relation to Need for Cognition and Cognitive Reflection

Objective This study evaluated the effect of individual differences in diurnal preferences on a problem-solving test of intelligence and a measure of a personality trait of how much someone enjoys thinking. Method Archival data from 85 participants who had completed measures online were utilized in this study. The sample was 51.8% female, 71.8% Caucasian, and mean age was 19.5. Participants completed the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ), Composite Morningness Questionnaire (CMQ), Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), and Need for Cognition Scale-Short Form (NFC). Raw score totals were utilized. Diurnal preferences were later grouped for morning, evening, or in between based on published MEQ and CMQ cutoffs. Lower scores indicate evening types, and higher scores indicate morning types. Results Scores on measures of diurnal preference were significantly positively related to NFC (MEQ r = 0.28, p = 0.011; CMQ r = 0.36, p = 0.001) meaning that morning types tend to enjoy effortful mentation more. Diurnal preferences were not significantly related to CRT performance. One-way ANOVA was performed with diurnal preferences as the group factor and NFC and CRT as dependent variables. Significant main effects were not found for MEQ and NFC nor MEQ and CRT. Significant main effects were found for CMQ and NFC F(2,77) = 5.33, p = 0.007, but not for CMQ and CRT. Conclusion These findings indicate that diurnal preference was not associated with performance on the problem-solving intelligence test used in this study. However, morning types appear to be higher for personality traits related to motivation to engage in thinking and would be expected to do better on some cognitive tests that demand more test engagement.

Need for Cognition Is Positively Related to Promotion Focus and Negatively Related to Prevention Focus

Need for cognition (NFC) and regulatory focus (RF) are important variables with individual differences relevant to motivation and goal pursuit. These constructs are widely used in the literature, often separately; no work has simultaneously examined the need for cognition scale (NCS) and Lockwood’s general regulatory focus measure (GRFM). Here, we explore shared theoretical underpinnings of the two constructs and assess whether they may be driven by common underlying factors. Considering purported overlaps between these scales and other constructs (e.g., personality and cognitive processes), we take a strong inference approach to test hypothesized bridges between the two measures. In a large (N = 853) sample, we found NCS to be related positively to GRFM promotion and negatively to GRFM prevention scores, suggesting mutual ties with behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system, intrinsic motivation, openness, and creativity. A generalized approach motivation, as well as intrinsic motivation, may thus drive both NFC and RF.

Negative self-appraisal: Personal reasons for dying as indicators of suicidality

Reasons for dying (RFD) are one of the most authentic factors illustrating the lived experience of suicidal individuals. However, the field has been criticized for inadequate evaluation of risk factors and suicidal symptoms, such as RFD, to develop more robust theoretical models and risk assessments. In this study, we aimed to critically examine RFD themes as predictors of suicidal symptoms to improve our understanding of the suicidal mind, test suicide theory validity and improve risk assessment. This cross-sectional mixed-method study included anonymous survey data (N = 713) with a subsample (n = 474; 77% female; age M = 31.48, SD = 13.53) who provided RFD. Participants were asked to write down five RFD (ranked 1st to 5th most important) and completed the Suicidal Affect-Behavior-Cognition Scale (SABCS). Thematic analysis revealed eight valid RFD themes—Negative Self-appraisal, Hopelessness, Desire to Escape, Escape Pain, Relationships, Loneliness, Financial Hardship, and Physical Health. Themes were quantified by rank and total endorsements of the theme. Hierarchical regression modelling, statistically controlling for demographics, showed all RFD themes, except Physical Health, were positive predictors of suicidality, accounting for 26% of variance in suicidal symptoms. Negative Self-appraisal was the strongest predictor. RFD differences were also found by gender, age and education. From these findings, we determined current suicide theories do not fully account for suicidal persons’ RFD. There is a pressing need for more critical review of current theories, as current theories only partially represent this key attribute of the suicidal mind, and none of the reviewed theories accurately reflected suicidal participants’ RFD. Clinical implications include integrating financial therapies into suicide prevention treatments and incorporating RFD into assessments and treatments. To aid research and risk assessment efforts, we propose a new RFD Index, with eight five-point response items.

The Impact of Self-Management Techniques to Improve University Students’ Social Cognition

The background of the current study is the urgency of possessing good social cognition to adapt to the social changes that are happening quickly. Weak social cognition makes individuals less in empathy, aggressive or unhappy in their daily life. The link between self-management and social cognition lies in cognitive adjustment. Hence, the authors think it is important to do research that focuses on the implementation of counseling with self-management techniques in developing social cognition. The authors aimed to investigate the effectiveness of self-management in improving social cognition. The present study used one group pretest-posttest quasi-experiment. We invited 10 students from Universitas Ma'soem, Indonesia to participate in the experiment. They were selected based on a low social cognition score after filling the self-report of nineteen items social cognition scale. The results showed counseling with self-management techniques effective in improving university students' social cognition. Besides, limitations and recommendations are discussed.

Moral Disengagement, Attitudes Towards Violence and Irrational Beliefs as Predictors of Bullying Cognition in Adolescence

Considering the causes of bullying behavior, the situations caused by it and its impact area, the formation of bullying in the cognitive dimension draws attention. In this context, examination of thoughts or cognition about bullying becomes an important element in explaining bullying. In this study, it is aimed to examine moral disengagement tendencies, attitudes towards violence and irrational beliefs as predictors of bullying cognition of adolescents between the ages of 15-18. Study group consisted of 369 individuals, 197 females and 172 males. Bullying Cognition Scale, Moral Disengagement Scale, Attitude Towards Violence Scale and Irrational Beliefs Scale for adolescents were applied to participants. The data obtained were tested by hierarchical regression analysis. Moral disengagement tendency, attitudes towards violence and irrational beliefs (demands for success and for comfort sub-dimensions) predicted cognition about bullying significantly. It was determined as a result of hierarchical regression analysis that these variables predicted bullying cognition both separately and together. At the end of the study, suggestions for the studies to be carried out for bullying, which would be handled within the scope of cognitive structure, were presented.

Pedagogic prestidigitation: using magic tricks to enhance educational videos

Previous research suggests that magic tricks can be employed within an educational context to enhance attention, engagement, critical thinking and recall. This study builds on this work by examining the impact of incorporating magic tricks into an online educational video. Adult participants (N = 198) completed a need for cognition scale and then watched a video containing either several bespoke card tricks that had been specially devised to help tell the story of the Apollo Moon landings (Magic Video), or an almost identical video that did not contain any magic tricks (Control Video). All participants rated their levels of engagement, absorption and recall. Compared to the Control Video, the Magic Video was rated as significantly more interesting, informative and absorbing. There was no difference between the groups for recall. There was a positive correlation between participants’ need for cognition scores, and the degree to which they found the Magic Video interesting, and were willing to share it with others. The theoretical, methodological and practical implications of these results are discussed, along with recommendations for future work.