"A Pragmatic March toward Democracy"?

This book has examined how the Free Officers were able to seize and consolidate power, topple the parliamentary regime, and put in place a new political order with them at the helm. It has shown that the erosion of liberalism in Egypt caused turmoil which in turn sparked clamors for drastic social and political reform. This created a situation that was exploited by the officers to stage a coup d'etat, and the military regime they established received support from the public and the intelligentsia. The officers initially refused to call their movement a revolution, and instead called themselves the “blessed movement.” They eventually declared their movement a revolution in early 1953; it was described by Anwar al-Sadat two years later as a “pragmatic march toward democracy.” This conclusion discusses the legacy of Nasser and Nasserism in Egyptian politics.

"Fondest Hopes of the West"

This chapter examines the Free Officers' relations with Britain and the United States, particularly in light of the Anglo-Egyptian negotiations regarding the withdrawal of British troops from the Suez Canal Zone. In the aftermath of the March crisis, the Command Council of the Revolution (CCR) trained its sights on an evacuation agreement with the British. Both Washington and London felt that the officers shared common strategic and objective aims with the West. The chapter first considers the extent and nature of U.S. and British roles in the consolidation of military rule in Egypt before discussing the Anglo-Egyptian relations in the context of Anglo-American alliance politics. It also explores the question of the presence of British troops in the Suez Canal Zone, along with the U.S. and British response to the Free Officers' coup d'etat of 1952. Finally, it looks at the signing of the Suez accord between Egypt and Britain in October 1954.

"Stability, in Whatever Guise"

This chapter examines the rhetoric of the March crisis as well as the ideals proferred and the programs espoused by both sides. In the wake of the March crisis, the Command Council of the Revolution (CCR) announced steps to end the period of transitional rule and facilitate the return of parliamentary life. It also proclaimed an end to all press censorship. The chapter first considers the debates over issues confronting the CCR, including the constituent assembly that would work on a new constitution, the idea of limiting the number of political parties in Egypt, and the political, economic, and social status of women. It also discusses the impact of the March crisis on the Democratic Movement for National Liberation (DMNL) and other communist movements, along with the notion that the liberal intelligentsia failed to support the revolution.

"The People's Army"

This chapter examines the extent to which the Free Officers formed a political ethos that inclined them toward intervention in civilian politics during the conspiratorial stage. The Free Officers' movement was the culmination of a dramatic political reorientation among the officer corps between 1936 and 1952. They represented the generation that turned away from the political establishment and rejected the leadership of its elders. The soldier's relationship to his country, to his people, to his commanding officers and king gave the young officers a particular perspective on the decay of the liberal order. This chapter first provides a historical background on the Egyptian military before discussing the organization of the Free Officers, along with its political activism, developing ideology, and ties to the Muslim Brotherhood.

Rewriting the Revolution

This book examines the formative period of the Egyptian revolution that began on July 23, 1952, when the Free Officers, a group of army officers led by Muhammad Nagib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, staged a coup d'etat that overthrew King Farouk. After forcing King Farouk to abdicate, the Free Officers established a military junta, decreed a land reform program, appointed Nagib as prime minister, and ordered all political parties to apply for recertification. They also abrogated the Constitution and outlawed all political parties, after which they declared a three-year “transition period” of martial law and proclaimed their movement a revolution. The book explores the political dynamics of this transition period by assessing and synthesizing a variety of interpretations of events and how the coup of July 23, undertaken in the name of social and political reform, became the “July Revolution.” It also considers the debate over the legacy of Nasser and the regime he founded in Egypt.

"Each of You Shall Be Gamal"

This chapter examines Gamal Abdel Nasser' transformation from conspirator in the July revolution to public statesman. The revolution of the Free Officers began to take form in the third year of their military rule. Following the March crisis, the officers abandoned plans to restore democratic life in Egypt in the near future. They used the police to preserve order, and occasionally to create disorder. The chapter considers the assassination attempt on Nasser by a member of the Muslim Brotherhood in October 1954—known as the Manshiya incident—and the Command Council of the Revolution's (CCR) subsequent crackdown on its most serious adversaries, particularly the communists and the Muslim Brothers, and even Muhammad Nagib. It also discusses Nasser's personal consolidation of power with an eye towards cementing his role as sole leader of Egypt as well as redefining the role of the revolutionary council.

"The Secret of the Nine"

This chapter examines the relations between the military junta and the officer corps that formed it. It first considers the role envisioned by the Free Officers for the army and for their own movement before discussing their growing discord with Muhammad Nagib in the context of a power struggle. It then analyzes the officers' conflict with Colonel Rashad Mahanna and the controversy surrounding the revelation of the names of the original nine junta members who decided to oust King Farouk from power. It also assesses the impact of the power struggle between Nagib and his younger colleagues on the internal stability of the Command Council of the Revolution (CCR) and concludes with the argument that the junta's actions were not consistent with its promise of a return to democracy.

"A Revolutionary, Not a Politician"

This chapter examines the March crisis of 1954, which saw the Command Council of the Revolution (CCR) face off against the combined opposition of the old political parties, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Left, much of the independent intelligentsia, and significant units within the army. The March crisis was sparked by the ouster of Muhammad Nagib as prime minister, and the opposition rallied behind him. They demand that power must return to civilian hands, the officers must return to the barracks, and the revolution must end. The chapter discusses the street demonstrations that were part of the March crisis and the steps taken by the Free Officers after it ended. It shows that the March crisis turned out to be a pivotal moment that allowed the CCR to consolidate its power and establish itself as the only viable alternative to the old regime.

"Lift Up Your Head"

This chapter examines the Free Officers' political agenda for their revolution. The officers' revolution was supposed to be only temporary, but they ended up overturning the liberal order in an attempt to clear the path for a turnover in party leadership. Their assertion of direct power was a reflection of the need for a bolder, more long-term strategy as far as Egypt's political reform was concerned. The chapter first considers the response of many liberals to the new regime before discussing the Command Council of the Revolution's (CCR) founding of a new political movement called Liberation Rally, designed to encourage national unity under the slogan “Lift up your head, my brother.” It then looks at the CCR's abolition of the monarchy and declaration of Egypt as a republic headed by Muhammad Nagib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. It also analyzes the show trials instigated by the government to prosecute old-regime figures for corruption and abuse of power.

"Revolutionary Jurisprudence"

This chapter examines how the Free Officers laid the groundwork for their revolution. During the first six months in power, the officers gradually came to see themselves not only as the vanguard of the struggle for national independence but as legitimate rulers of Egypt. They acted swiftly, purging political ranks and reforming the constitution. They abolished the political parties and assumed direct authority over the country. This was how the Free Officers declared their revolution. The chapter first considers the “blessed movement,” the term used by the Free Officers to refer to themselves, and the military junta they established before discussing the two factions, known as the minimalists and maximalists, that differed in attitude toward the issue of military rule. It also explores how the Free Officers' abolition of political parties intersect with the controversies of the previous six months: the resistance to voluntary “purification” and party organization, and opposition to land reform.