“Rural-Specific” Types of Childhood Trauma in Rural Communities

In this chapter, the authors discuss eight types of trauma that Latino children are likely to encounter by residing in rural or geographically-isolated communities. The authors contend that there exist more “rural-specific” types of childhood trauma that Latino children are at-risk for when compared to “urban-specific” types of trauma. For example, Latino children who reside in rural communities are more likely to traumatized by parental deportation, migrating from one town to another because parents follow the harvest, language brokering or translating for their parents, experiencing or witnessing farming accidents, relocating from the city to the country, isolation from extended family, pesticide poisoning of the child or a family member, and living in labor camps or substandard housing. It is important to note that Latino children, like children from other cultural, racial, and ethnic backgrounds, can experience all types of trauma irrespective of whether they reside in urban or rural settings.

Spirituality

Religion appears to shape the daily lives of most children in America; the influence of religion often serves as a template for making decisions, establishing relationships, comprehending the world, and finding meaning in confusing and/or traumatic situations that children may encounter. To ignore the role of religion and spirituality in behavioral and mental health treatment is to dismiss a central domain of child and adolescent development as well as a potential path to healing. In this chapter, we discuss the role of spirituality and religion in children in rural communities and how they can be integrated into counseling and therapy as a path to healing.

Assessment of Childhood Trauma in Rural Settings

Childhood exposure to trauma is prevalent and has been shown to contribute to both immediate and long-term psychological distress and functional impairment. Most mental health professionals will encounter trauma-related issues in their work, regardless of their specialty or the context in which they work, however, in rural communities it may be difficult for mental health practitioners to seek specialty training in working with survivors of trauma. The aim of this chapter is to provide practitioners with basic knowledge about the effects of trauma on children and adolescents, clinical skills and available measures designed to appropriately assess exposure to trauma and subsequent trauma-related symptoms, and ethical and cultural considerations required when assessing trauma in children and adolescents in rural communities.

When the System Fails

Guided by the lens of psychodynamic theory, Ford (2015) investigated the challenges faced by adoptive families of traumatized children. Fifteen families were randomly selected to participate in this study from a group of 30 parents who adopted traumatized children in Arizona. Thematic categories were drawn and summarized. Textual descriptions evolved from the thematic groups acknowledging their experiences and how these lived experiences guided their decision to adopt a traumatized child. Verification techniques, data mining, journaling, clustering, brainstorming, and peer reviews were used to ensure the quality of data. Emergent themes emphasized the need for adoption-focused training specific to traumatized children. Ford's (2015) study revealed that these adoptive families desired to be equipped with specialized therapeutic training before and after their adoptions.

Psychosocial Aspects of Trauma and Related Disorders

This chapter reviews the psycho-social aspects of trauma and related disorders. A wealth of information has accumulated over the decades of research on the trauma and related disorders. However, some aspects of trauma are still debatable globally such as definition of trauma, diversity in expression and response across individuals and cultures. Exposure to trauma can lead to troubling memories, psycho-physical arousal and avoidance of the event, has been a central theme in literature. Until researchers have realized the complexity of trauma transcends the relatively narrow definition of trauma. Cultural diversity in trauma and related disorders have brought into notice the multi-dimensional nature of trauma which is the focus of this chapter.

The Contagion of Trauma

Research has been increasingly clear regarding the critical importance of the first years of life, especially the first three years, on personality development and the ability to adapt and adjust throughout life. Children with histories of traumas such as abuse, neglect, drug exposure, inconsistent caregiving, or violence during these critical early years can have profound disruptions in their development, including severe behavioral and emotional problems. The parents who adopt a child with a history of trauma are vulnerable to developing their own vicarious, or secondary trauma. This chapter explores this contagion of trauma within adoptive families, following the story of one such affected family. Treatment has focused on the needs of the traumatized child individually and through behaviorally-based parenting interventions. The individual clinical needs of the attachment figures, the parents, have not received the attention they deserve. These needs are as critical as addressing the child's trauma in order to allow for creation of a secure attachment with the child.

Childhood Trauma and Barriers in a Rural Setting

This chapter details the experiences author had while attempting to obtain medical and psychological help for her children while living in a rural area. This chapter, per the author's request, addresses childhood trauma and barriers that need to be broken down so that emotional healing can begin. This submission is personal, and real occurrences. Rural areas generally have less resources available and because rural areas are sometimes remote, financial resources may not be available for a parent or caregiver to travel to obtain the needed help. Rural towns are normally condensed. This means that there is less privacy, and more ways for perpetrators to work a system of abuse within the schools, community, and churches in order to continue “getting to” the victim-- the child, or in this submission, child and parent. Healing from trauma can only begin when the barriers are recognized, broken down, and eliminated.

Does Location Matter?

Domestic Violence is a societal issue that affects all members of a family where it occurs; children are especially vulnerable even when violence isn't directed towards them. Exposure to family violence has been shown to impact all the developmental stages of childhood; the consequences this exposure to trauma can have lifelong effects. As a result many programs attempt to provide children services to assist with increasing resiliency as well as mitigating the effects caused by exposure to violence. Rural communities face specific barriers unique to their areas – this chapter will explore the impact Domestic Violence has on people living in these underserved regions. While there is limited research on the impact of domestic violence on children living in rural communities this chapter will summarize some of the risks faced by families as well as discuss considerations with assessment and treatment.

The Impact of Parental Substance Abuse on Children

Substance abuse is a difficult situation for anyone to deal with, but the problem is compacted when children are involved. Parents who are substance abusers may knowingly or unknowingly be causing a number of problems for their child. Substance abuse in a parent can lead to child abuse and neglect. A child can develop anxiety; this can include overachievement, constant need to please others, fear of harm coming to the family, and concern about getting home on time. Children can experience depression including symptoms like fatigue, listlessness, and no interest in pleasurable activities. For a child with a parent who abuses drugs or alcohol, there is a strong likelihood they will experience psychosomatic illness and complaining often about not feeling well. The child may also show behaviours evident of regression, including thumb-sucking, enuresis and infantile behaviour. Phobias can occur, which sometimes are about attending school. Some additional effects on a child can include low self-esteem and social isolation. These can encompass difficulty making decisions, self put downs, reluctance to try new activities, keeping to one's self, no friends and avoiding peer contact. This chapter aims to describe and increase awareness of the harmful effects of parental substance abuse on children. Therefore, the trends in substance abuse are being discussed to give the reader an understanding of the widespread and complex social phenomenon and the ones most affected; the children.

What If a Whole Community Came Together?

Isolation is often a key factor and contributor to childhood trauma in rural communities. Not only does it potentially mean that there are less “eyes” on a family but it also means less supports and positive connections for a family. It means less ways out of the maze of childhood trauma and poverty. This chapter will explore how to build community in rural areas so that families feel connected and supported. It will give tools and tips for engaging traditional and non-traditional partners to create a web of support for families. It will call upon research and scientifically proven tactics for community engagement as well as more grass roots efforts that work in rural communities. In addition the article will give real life examples from some of the most rural areas in the state of Maine of how communities have come together to support children and ensure better screening, intervention and treatment.