On the Neglected Shifting Balance Theory, Bateson-DobzhanskyMuller Model & Quantum Evolution Plus the Role of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential (MMP) Impact on COVID-19

Background: Approximately 80% of all viruses are RNA viruses and they contain their specific RNA helicases. Defective RNA helicases have been linked to infectious diseases (Viral Infections). Materials and Methods: The articles have gone through many types of research from the beginning of the epidemic of Coronaviruses through history and we introduced the neglected hypothesis of Shifting balance theory, Bateson-DobzhanskyMuller model & Quantum evolution. In the ancestral population, the genotype is AABB. When two populations become isolated from each other, new mutations can arise. In one population A evolves into a, and in the other B evolves into b. When the two populations hybridize it is the first time A and B interact with each other. When these alleles are incompatible, we speak of Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities plus the role of MMA in mitochondria in spreading SARS-CoV-19 through populations and the result of an infection in COVID-19. Results: In viruses specifically COVID-19, Ribosomal Frameshift is programmed to allows the virus to encode multiple types of proteins from the same mRNA. HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus), RSV (Rous sarcoma virus), and all types of influenza viruses use Ribosomal Frameshift. They rely on frameshifting to create a proper ratio of normal translation and trans-frame (encoded by frameshifted sequence) proteins. Notably, its use in viruses is primarily for compacting more genetic information into a shorter amount of genetic material. Conclusion: to find the genome sequence of COVID-19 we also used Nanopore sequencing that introduced and manufactured by Oxford scientists, due to differences in the action of infection in the host, we could not reach any results since the Novel Virus has not a stable genome (which is quite dynamic) since through our deep research, each virus contains its specific genome sequencing and we cannot claim that COVID-19 has one specific genome sequence like MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV or any types of viruses which has been discovered and contains their specific genome.

Highlights on the Golden Mushroom Cantharellus cibarius and unique Shaggy ink cap Mushroom Coprinus comatus and Smoky Bracket Mushroom Bjerkandera adusta Ecology and Biological Activities

Mushrooms are generous source of nutritional and medicinal compounds, and medicinal uses of the mushrooms still need to be worked out for their biological activities. This review aims to put golden mushroom Cantharellus and shaggy ink cap mushroom Coprinus and smoky bracket mushroom Bjerkandera under light spot through describing their morphology and ecology especially of the most common species, Cantharellus cibarius; Coprinus comatus and Bjerkandera adusta. Moreover discussing important secondary metabolites and biological activities exerted by ever one. Cantharellus cibarius; Coprinus comatus and Bjerkandera adusta are able to produce many novel and potent secondary metabolites that exerted different bioactivities especially as antimicrobial, antitumor, anti-inflammation activities and others. Further studies and investigations are fortified in order to find more about these interesting mushrooms.

Epidemiology of Superficial Fungal Infections in Hospital Settings in Togo and Senegal from 2019 to 2020

Background: Superficial fungal diseases are cosmopolitan affections caused by yeast and filamentous microscopic fungi (dermatophytes and moulds). Their very high prevalence and worldwide distribution make them one of the most common dermatological diseases. Our study aims to describe the profile of superficial fungal diseases diagnosed in Senegal and Togo and to identify the causative agents circulating in both countries. Material and Methods: This is a descriptive study carried out in Senegal and Togo, involving 602 and 135 patients respectively. The patients presenting clinical signs were screened in the Parasitology-Mycology laboratories of the Fann University Hospital in Dakar (from February 2019 to February 2020) and Sylvanus Olympio University Hospital in Lomé (from October 2019 to March 2020). Samples collected were examined using routine mycological techniques (Direct examination and culture). Results: In Senegal 293 (48.67%) out of 602 patients enrolled were diagnosed with superficial fungal diseases. Patients under 10 old years and female, most affected, represented 23.42% and 61.39% of cases respectively. The patients were seen mostly in September with 27 positives cases out of 42. Trichophyton soudanense and Candida albicans complex were the most common species, with a prevalence rate of 30.37% and 26.96% respectively. In Togo, 67.41% (91) of the 135 patients presented superficial mycosis. The female (58.76%) and the patients aged 31-40 year old (21.65%) were the most affected. Highest prevalence is recorded in October with 11 positive cases out of 13. Malassezia furfur was the most common species with a prevalence of 28.57%. The same species of fungi were found in both countries with the exception of three fungi Trichophyton violaceum, Aspergillus candidus (respectively 3 cases and 1 case in Senegal) and Trichophyton tonsurans (3 cases in Togo). Conclusion: Superficial mycoses are a frequent reason for consultation in Senegal and Togo. Dermatophytes and yeasts of the genus Candida and Malassezia are the most common agents involved. The use of innovative diagnostic techniques could allow a more precise identification of species for a better therapeutic management.

Aflatoxigenic Contamination of Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Seed and its Management Using Seed Extract of Moringa oleifera Lam. and Rhizome of Zingiber officinale Rosc. in Katsina State, Nigeria

Studies on aflatoxin seed contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) in storage and its management using seed extract of Moringa oleifera and rhizome of Zingiber officinale was carried out on diseased seeds collected from Dutsin-Ma, Kurfi and Safana Local Government Areas of Katsina State, Nigeria between March and July, 2019. Aspergilus niger, A. flavus, A. ochraceus, A. tamari, A. parasitica, Rhizotonia spp, mucor spp and F. oxysporum were isolated. A. niger was the most frequently occurring pathogen in all the locations in March, 2019 with a range of 9 in Kurfi to 13 Dutsin-Ma and between 14 in Kurfi and 22 in Dutsin-Ma in July while the least was Mucor with a range of 3 in Dutsin-Ma and 6 in Kurfi both in July. Pathogenicity test conducted illicit rot in the healthy groundnut seeds. A. niger and A. flavus which were the most virulent pathogenic fungi responsible for aflatoxin contamination in groundnut seeds were controlled with the two extracts. Z. officinale was found to be more effective in the control of A. niger than M. oleifera at 40 g/L with inhibition of 60.32 % and at 120 g/L with inhibition of 87.33 % compared to M. oleifera which inhibited A. niger mycelial at 40 g/L by 59.79 % and at 120 g/L by 73.53 %. M. oleifera however, proved more efficacious in the management of A. flavus than Z. oficinale at 40 g/L and 80 g/L with percentage growth inhibition of 60.79 % and 62.47 %, respectively compared to a lower inhibition of 60.52 % and 60.94 % at 40 g/L and 80 g/L of Z. officinale, respectively. In both cases, the two extracts proved more effective on A. niger than A. flavus. It is therefore, recommended that extracts of Z. officinale and M. oleifera at different concentrations can be used to effectively manage rot pathogens of groundnut seeds in storage by farmers.

The Negative Impact of the Hominin’s DPP4 Gene Inherited from Neanderthals to Pandemic of COVID-19

Background: According to preliminary sequences from 2010, 99.7% of the nucleotide sequences of the modern human and Neanderthal genomes are identical, compared to humans sharing around 98.8% of sequences with the chimpanzee. In contrast, the difference between chimpanzees and modern humans is approximately 1,462 mtDNA base pairs. Materials and Methods: Neanderthal-inherited genetic material is found in all non-African populations and was initially reported to comprise 1 to 4 percent of the genome. This fraction was later refined to 1.5 to 2.1 percent. We had gone through many researches of Neanderthals affected gene flow in humans. Results: It is estimated that 20 percent of Neanderthal DNA currently survives in modern humans. Modern human genes involved in making keratin, a protein constituent of skin, hair, and nails, have especially high levels of introgression. For example, approximately 66% of East Asians contain a POUF23L variant introgressed from Neanderthals, while 70% of Europeans possess an introgressed allele of BNC2. Our finding shines a light on an enzyme called dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4). Scientists already know the protein allows another coronavirus, which causes Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS), to bind to and enter human cells. The new analysis, of DPP4 gene variants among COVID-19 patients, suggests the enzyme also provides SARS-CoV-2 with a second door into our cells, along with its usual infection route via the angiotensinconverting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor on cell surfaces. Conclusion: Most Europeans, Asians, and Native Americans harbor a handful of genes from Neanderthals, up 1.8% to 2.6% of their DNA. Studies of ancient DNA in Neanderthal fossils have shown the hominin’s DPP4 gene subtly differs from the typical human one. Conclusion: The hominin’s DPP4 gene inherited from Neanderthals plays a major role in Immune System Disorders and Lower Immune response in many diseases. This gene plays a major role in affecting humans with COVID-19 and spreading it through the world. All humans contain this gene from 1 to 4 percent. East Asians, Europeans, Middle and South Americans conveys more, hence; native Africans contain less amounts of hominin’s DPP4 gene. Therefore; East Asians, Europeans, Middle and South Americans are prone to severe COVID-19.

Unicellular Eukaryote as a Bio-cellular Model for Studying Effect Benzimidazole: Ultrastructural Analysis

The search for new derivatives of benzoimidazole with an active center that have a wide range of biological effects (antifungal, antiflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor, antidiabetic, etc.) is the subject of modern pharmaceutical science. To determine the mechanism of action of benzoimidazole, a search is underway for more. We have previously carried out the Ultrastructural characterization of various prokaryotes and protists, as well as the mechanism of action of antibiotics and chemical preparations on them. From a series of heterocyclic drugs, a drug with a wide spectrum of action was chosen as derivatives of benzimidazole and a model of a free-living unicellular eukaryote Endameba moshkovskii with a vegetative and cystic form. The purpose of this work is the nature of the action of drugs of the benzimidazole series and in the ultrastructural visualization of the mechanism of action of benzimidazole using electron microscopic and electron-cytochemical methods on the model of polyxenic cultures of unicellular eukaryotes Entamoeba moshkovskii. We have established for the first time the excising effect of benzimidazole and the functional-ultrastructural mechanism of the action of benzimidazole on entameoba cells. As a result, the ultrastructural and functional morphology of benzimidazole action in the process of excysting entamoeba was established.

Isolation, Identification and Molecular Characterization of Pathogenic Fungus causing bud Rot Disease to Coconut: Its Inhibition using Silkworm Fecal Matter Mediated Synthesized Silver and Copper Nanoparticles

Coconut is one the major economic crop in India; a considerable amount of crop will be lost every year due to bud rot disease. Phytophthora palmivora is an omnipresent pathogen which causes many different diseases on a wide range of plants including bud rot of coconut. In the present investigation, we have successfully isolated bud rot disease causing fungus from the infected coconut plant samples. The isolated fungus was primarily identified by observing in microscopy further the same sample was sent for molecular identification. The presence of Phytophthora palmivora was confirmed in 18s rRNA sequencing. The growth of isolated fungus was effectively inhibited using biosynthesized Silver and Copper nanoparticles. The inhibition effects of nanoparticles against Phytophthora palmivora were observed excellent in dose-dependent manner. The silver nanoparticles synthesized using Silkworm fecal matter was shown superior inhibition activity towards Phytophthora palmivora compare to standard fungicide Fluconazole. Hence, these silver Nano particles could be successfully used in inhibiting the pathogenic fungus causing bud rot disease to coconut.

Yeast the Present and Future Cell Facture

Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms that are existing in a wide range of habitats, thanks to their ability to adapt even in extreme locations and conditions. Moreover, the unicellular nature of yeasts makes them better suited for deep liquid substrates or moist and uneven surfaces. Till now, about 1500 species of yeasts are described, and the genus Saccharomyces is the well-studied genus of all the yeasts in terms of physiology and genetics. In this review, we elucidate the role of yeasts as biotechnological tool and their current and potential applications. We also highlighted the features, and industrial application of some marine yeasts. Furthermore, describing rarely basidiomycetous yeast involved in different applications. Contributions of yeasts and their enzymes in food, industrial, and pharmaceuticals fields were also discussed. Finally, employment of yeasts in biotransformation process was show.

Revision of the Species Composition of Slime Molds in the Ile Alatau (Kazakhstan)

After the revision, it was found that the biota of slime molds in the Ile Alatau (Kazakhstan) has 62 species. The article provides a systematic list of slime molds. In the Ile Alatau these fungi-like organisms are represented by two classes: Protosteliomycetes and Myxomycetes. The Myxomycetes class is more widely represented and has 4 orders. The largest number of species is characteristic of the genera Trichia (8 species), Physarum (6), Arcyria, Diderma (5 species each) and Badhamia (4 species). The most common species in the research area are Lycogala epidendrum, Fuligo septica, Hemitrichia clavata, Trichia varia, Stemonitis axifera, S. fusca, S. splendens and Stemonitopsis typhina. Representatives of slime molds were found on various 18 substrates. The largest number of slime molds species (54) was recorded on Picea schrenkiana. There are 13 species on Populus tremula and 4 species on Betula tianschanica. The remaining substrates are characterized by 1-2 species. It is necessary to note the species of the genus Diderma that appear in early spring after snowfall: Diderma niveum, found on Artemisia juncea and representatives of Poaceae, and D. radiatum on dry grasses, leaves and branches of shrubs.