Rivers, policies, and interests

Chapter 13 examines the determinants of river-related policies and considers ways of making further progress toward the Ecological and Open approaches to rivers. It shows that there are broadly two types of obstacles impeding adoption of the Ecological and Open approaches. These are, first, paucity of required knowledge, and, second, vested interests favoring the Commercial and Cordon approaches. External influence from developed countries, until now, has mostly favored the Commercial and Cordon approaches in developing countries. Informing and engaging the public is the main way in which both the obstacles of paucity of knowledge and vested interests can be overcome. Moving the discussion of river policies to the public arena is therefore important.

Ecological approach as part of greater environmental awareness

Chapter 7 shows that the emergence of the Ecological approach to rivers is a part of the broader process of greater recognition of the importance of protection of environment, in general. The huge increase in population and production following the Industrial Revolution led to breaches in planetary boundaries, putting the earth and human civilization in a jeopardy. Since the 1970s there has been growing recognition of this mortal danger, and various initiatives were begun along different directions to confront this danger, many focused on protection of rivers and waterbodies. Among these are the Ramsar Convention of 1971, UN Convention on International Rivers of 1997, and formation and report of the World Commission on Dams in 2000. The rise of the Ecological approach to rivers is a continuation of this process.

Application of the Commercial approach

Chapter 4 provides a few case studies of rivers to illustrate the consequences of the Commercial approach. These rivers are: the Colorado River of the United States; the Murray-Darling river system of Australia; the Amu Darya and Syr Darya of the former Soviet Union; the Nile River of Africa; and the Indus River of South Asia. It shows that in each case, the application of the Commercial approach has led to river fragmentation and excessive withdrawal of water, leading to exhaustion of rivers, which in turn led to salinity intrusion and erosion, subsidence, and desiccation of the deltas. The ecology of the river basins has been damaged, including loss of aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity. In case of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers, this damage includes the destruction of the Aral Sea, once considered the second-largest inland waterbody of the world. In each case, the Commercial approach has led to conflicts among co-riparian countries.

Cordon approach in a delta

Chapter 11 illustrates the consequences of the Cordon approach through the experience of the Bengal Delta, formed by three great river systems—the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. The chapter explains the delta formation process in general, noting the stages through which it progresses. It presents the basic facts regarding the Bengal delta, which now spreads across both Bangladesh and India. The chapter reviews the application of the Cordon approach in both parts of the delta. It notes that the approach received wider application in Bangladesh, which contains the larger and active part of the Bengal Delta. In the process, the approach gave rise to different types of cordons, rural and urban; coastal and inland; and partial and full. The chapter shows that while the specificities differ, the Cordon approach in each case led to separation of the land from the nurturing functions of river overflows, emergence of the new danger of catastrophic flooding, and the nagging problem of waterlogging. The Cordon approach also led to the rise of conflicts, pitting people inside the cordons with those remaining outside, who witnessed aggravation of flooding.

Open approach to rivers

Chapter 10 provides an overview of the Open approach, focusing on its merits, progress, and prospects and showing how it can be more conducive to sustainable development. It shows that the Open approach is not a passive approach but requires sustained activities along many dimensions, including both flood-proofing and flood-regulating measures. The chapter follows the progression of the Open approach. It discusses the reflection of this approach in the European Union’s Directive on Floods and its implementation. It takes note of country level initiatives in many European countries, such as the Netherlands’ “Room for River” project, that conform with the Open approach. The chapter then examines some recent policy changes in the United States regarding the Mississippi levee system that also reflect the Open approach. It also reviews the progress of the Open approach in other parts of the world.

Commercial approach to rivers

Chapter 2 reviews the origin and spread of the Commercial approach to rivers. It explains the origin of this approach in the first Industrial Revolution, which provided human societies both the commercial motive and the machine power required to undertake large-scale frontal and lateral interventions in rivers. The chapter catalogues various types of frontal intervening structures—including dams, barrages, and weirs—that the Commercial approach deploys to achieve its purpose. The chapter then follows the spread of the frontal version of the Commercial approach across the world, beginning with the developed countries and then the developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The chapter ends by providing a statistical summary of the global picture regarding dams and barrages, which are the main instruments of the Commercial approach to rivers.

Open approach to rivers in a delta

Chapter 12 presents the progress of and problems faced by the Open approach in the Bengal Delta and draws attention to the special merits of the Open approach in confronting the adverse effects of climate change in this delta. It surveys the findings of river scholars in the Indian part of the delta favoring the Open approach. Reviewing progress in the Bangladesh part of the delta, the chapter follows the struggle against the Flood Action Plan (FAP) that argued for big embankment projects in the wake of the historic flood of 1988. It notes the changes that took place in Bangladesh’s water-related institutional set up following the FAP process and the prospects they hold for promoting the Open approach. The chapter also presents a few examples of water projects that conform with the Open approach. It offers a critique of the recently formulated Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 that fails to make a clear break from the Cordon approach. It reviews the development of the renewed, broad-based civic movement in Bangladesh for adoption of the Open approach.

Cordon approach to rivers

Chapter 9 presents the Cordon approach, describing its methods, reviewing its spread across the world, and analyzing its consequences. It discusses the general relationship between river channels and their floodplains and explains the nurturing functions that regular river inundations perform. The chapter then outlines the instruments of the Cordon approach, such as embankments, floodwalls, channelization, and canalization. It goes on to explain the relationship between the Cordon and the Polder approaches and offers a classification of cordons into different types. The chapter reviews the consequences of the Cordon approach, distinguishing between those for river channels and for floodplains. It provides an overview of the experience of the Cordon approach in different parts of the world, focusing on the United States, Europe, and India. It also presents two case studies of the Cordon approach: the Mississippi levee system in the United States and the Huang He River embankments in China.

Commercial approach and river-related conflicts in South Asia

Chapter 5 uses the experience of South Asia to illustrate how the Commercial approach leads to conflicts among co-riparian countries. It notes that river basins were fragmented in South Asia by borders that were drawn based on political considerations and not physical geography. While greater cooperation among South Asian countries was necessary to protect the river basins, adoption of the Commercial approach led to more conflicts than cooperation. India, which lies at the center of the region, has borders with most South Asian countries, including Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and Pakistan and finds itself in conflict with all of them. The chapter focuses on the most serious and numerous conflicts, which are with Bangladesh, and center on such major water diversionary barrages as the Farakka Barrage and the Gajoldoba Barrage. It notes that India’s proposed River Linking Project is only likely to aggravate these conflicts. The chapter also reviews India’s conflicts with Nepal and Bhutan regarding sharing the costs and benefits of the dams that it has constructed under joint ventures as well as conflicts with Pakistan over sharing the Indus River. Finally, the chapter notes the burgeoning conflicts with China regarding the Brahmaputra River.

Consequences of the Commercial approach to rivers

Chapter 3 examines the adverse effects of the Commercial approach on river morphology, such as fragmentation of rivers, upstream sedimentation, and downstream disfigurations. It demonstrates the “More water, more thirst!” syndrome that this approach creates, leading to exhaustion of rivers and deleterious effects on deltas, estuaries, and the coastal environment. It reviews the broader effects of this approach on the ecology of river basins, including loss of seasonal pulses and emergence of new dangers of catastrophic flooding, waterlogging, salinity, deterioration of soil quality, and damages to the flora and fauna. The chapter also examines the unsuitability of the Commercial approach in the light of climate change, noting GHG emissions from dam reservoirs and increased risks from erratic and greater precipitation. It illustrates the unfair distribution of costs and benefits of the Commercial approach and shows that financial rates of return of projects under the Commercial approach are generally lower than claimed, and the economic rates of return are even lower, if not negative. The chapter also shows how the Commercial approach creates conflicts among co-riparian communities.