A Conceptual Descriptive-Comparative Study of Models and Standards of Processes in SE, SwE, and IT Disciplines Using the Theory of Systems

The increasing design, manufacturing, and provision complexity of high-quality, cost-efficient and trustworthy products and services has demanded the exchange of best organizational practices in worldwide organizations. While that such a realization has been available to organizations via models and standards of processes, the myriad of them and their heavy conceptual density has obscured their comprehension and practitioners are confused in their correct organizational selection, evaluation, and deployment tasks. Thus, with the ultimate aim to improve the task understanding of such schemes by reducing its business process understanding complexity, in this article we use a conceptual systemic model of a generic business organization derived from the theory of systems to describe and compare two main models (CMMI/SE/SwE, 2002; ITIL V.3, 2007) and four main standards (ISO/IEC 15288, 2002; ISO/IEC 12207, 1995; ISO/IEC 15504, 2005; ISO/IEC 20000, 2006) of processes. Description and comparison are realized through a mapping of them onto the systemic model.

Information-As-System in Information Systems

This article investigates the complex nature of information in information systems (IS). Based on the systems thinking framework, this study argues that information in IS is a system in its own right. A conceptual model of information-as-system is built on the systems thinking perspective adopted from Gharajedaghi’s holistic thinking rooted from Ackoff systems approach, which is developed through Peirce’s semiotics with the validity support of Metcalfe and Powell’s perspective of information perception, Mingers and Brocklesby’s schema of situational actions, Toulmin’s theory of argumentation and Ulrich’s theory of systems boundary. The proposed model of information-as-systems is described in terms of triads–on the structure, function, and process, all interdependent–in a context of information-as-system in IS.

Could the Work System Method Embrace Systems Concepts More Fully?

The work system method was developed iteratively with the overarching goal of helping business professionals understand IT-reliant systems in organizations. It uses general systems concepts selectively, and sometimes implicitly. For example, a work system has a boundary, but its inputs are treated implicitly rather than explicitly. This chapter asks whether the further development of the work system method might benefit from integrating general systems concepts more completely. After summarizing aspects of the work system method, it dissects some of the underlying ideas and questions how thoroughly even basic systems concepts are applied. It also asks whether and how additional systems concepts might be incorporated beneficially. The inquiry about how to use additional system ideas is of potential interest to people who study systems in general and information systems in particular because it deals with bridging the gap between highly abstract concepts and practical applications.

The Distribution of a Management Control System in an Organization

This chapter is concerned with methodological issues. In particular, it addresses the question of how is it possible to align the design of management information systems with the structure of an organization. The method proposed is built upon the Cybersin method developed by Stafford Beer (1975) and Raul Espejo (1992). The chapter shows a way to intersect three complementary organizational fields: management information systems, management control systems, and organizational learning when studied from a systemic perspective; in this case from the point of view of management cybernetics (Beer 1959, 1979, 1981, 1985).

Information Technology Industry Dynamics

This chapter combines disruptive innovation strategy (DIS) theory with the system dynamics (SD) modeling method. It presents a simulation model of the hard-disk (HD) maker population overshoot and collapse dynamics, showing that DIS can crucially affect the dynamics of the IT industry. Data from the HD maker industry help calibrate the parameters of the SD model and replicate the HD makers’ overshoot and collapse dynamics, which DIS allegedly caused from 1973 through 1993. SD model analysis entails articulating exactly how the structure of feedback relations among variables in a system determines its performance through time. The HD maker population model analysis shows that, over five distinct time phases, four different feedback loops might have been most prominent in generating the HD maker population dynamics. The chapter shows the benefits of using SD modeling software, such as iThink®, and SD model analysis software, such as Digest®. The latter helps detect exactly how changes in loop polarity and prominence determine system performance through time. Strategic scenarios computed with the model also show the relevance of using SD for information system management and research in areas where dynamic complexity rules.

A Critical Systems View of Power-Ethics Interactions in Information Systems Evaluation

Current developments in information systems (IS) evaluation emphasise stakeholder participation in order to ensure adequate and beneficial IS investments. It is now common to consider evaluation as a subjective process of interpretation(s), in which people’s appreciations are taken into account to guide evaluations. However, the context of power relations in which evaluation takes place, as well as their ethical implications, has not been given full attention. In this article, ideas of critical systems thinking and Michel Foucault’s work on power and ethics are used to define a critical systems view of power to support IS evaluation. The article proposes a system of inquiry into power with two main areas: 1) Deployment of evaluation via power relations and 2) Dealing with ethics. The first element addresses how evaluation becomes possible. The second one goes in-depth into how evaluation can proceed as being informed by ethical reflection. The article suggests that inquiry into these relationships should contribute to extend current views on power in IS evaluation practice, and to reflect on the ethics of those involved in the process.

System-of-Systems Cost Estimation

As organizations strive to expand system capabilities through the development of system-of-systems (SoS) architectures, they want to know “how much effort” and “how long” to implement the SoS. In order to answer these questions, it is important to first understand the types of activities performed in SoS architecture development and integration and how these vary across different SoS implementations. This article provides results of research conducted to determine types of SoS lead system integrator (LSI) activities and how these differ from the more traditional system engineering activities described in Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) 632 (“Processes for Engineering a System”). This research further analyzed effort and schedule issues on “very large” SoS programs to more clearly identify and profile the types of activities performed by the typical LSI and to determine organizational characteristics that significantly impact overall success and productivity of the LSI effort. The results of this effort have been captured in a reduced-parameter version of the constructive SoS integration cost model (COSOSIMO) that estimates LSI SoS engineering (SoSE) effort.

Integrating the Fragmented Pieces of IS Research Paradigms and Frameworks

A formal conceptualization of the original concept of system and related concepts—from the original systems approach movement—can facilitate the understanding of information systems (IS). This article develops a critique integrative of the main IS research paradigms and frameworks reported in the IS literature using a systems approach. The effort seeks to reduce or dissolve some current research conflicts on the foci and the underlying paradigms of the IS discipline.

Making the Case for Critical Realism

This article seeks to address the dearth of practical examples of research in the area by proposing that critical realism be adopted as the underlying research philosophy for enterprise systems evaluation. We address some of the implications of adopting such an approach by discussing the evaluation and implementation of a number of automated performance measurement systems (APMS). Such systems are a recent evolution within the context of enterprise information systems. They collect operational data from integrated systems to generate values for key performance indicators, which are delivered directly to senior management. The creation and delivery of these data are fully automated, precluding manual intervention by middle or line management. Whilst these systems appear to be a logical progression in the exploitation of the available rich, real-time data, the statistics for APMS projects are disappointing. An understanding of the reasons is elusive and little researched. We describe how critical realism can provide a useful “underlabourer” for such research, by “clearing the ground a little ... removing some of the rubbish that lies in the way of knowledge” (Locke, 1894, p. 14). The implications of such an underlabouring role are investigated. Whilst the research is still underway, the article indicates how a critical realist foundation is assisting the research process.

Using a Systems Thinking Perspective to Construct and Apply an Evaluation Approach of Technology-Based Information Systems

In this article, we use soft systems methodology and complexity modeling to build an evaluation approach of a data warehouse implemented in a leading European financial institution. This approach consists in building a theoretical model to be used as a purposeful observation lens, producing a clear picture of the problematic situation under study and aimed at providing knowledge to prescribe corrective actions.