Cultural Elements of Knowledge Management

Organisational culture is, perhaps not surprisingly, by far the most researched topic in relation to knowledge management to date. It is widely argued that an open, collaborative culture enhances knowledge processes, activities and practices, and that this open culture will help organisations be successful in the long-run (see for example, Du Plessis, 2006; Kathiravelu et al., 2014; Intezari et al., 2017). Organisational values, assumptions, and the cultural context shape what employees believe in, their shared understanding of how things are done in the organisation, as well as their shared language. The process of meaning-making through different knowledge practices is therefore largely shaped by organisational culture and embedded in it (Hislop et al., 2018).

Power and Knowledge

This chapter discusses the links between knowledge and power and aims to demonstrate that, to “manage knowledge implies use of power, in terms of the ability of an organisation to achieve a collective sense of ‘what to do next’ and to exercise authority over the behaviour and communication patterns of internal and external agents – thereby influencing such things as who will interact with whom, on what basis, and to what purpose” (Clegg & Ray, 2003: 23). Power, knowledge, and the ‘rules of the game’ within an organisation (its political system, organisational culture, how things are done) are therefore intertwined; one cannot simply exist without the other. Clegg and Ray (2003: 23) go on to say, “the interaction of power and rules – to enable and constrain legitimate individual and collective actions – simultaneously shapes those actions. Rules shape actions that, in turn, have consequences for the evolution of rules and their interpretation in context.”

Appreciative Sharing of Knowledge

The previous chapters in this book have so far mainly focused on problem-solving approaches to knowledge management within event organisations. It has been argued that there are a lot of knowledge management challenges in event organisations, which need to be overcome in order for the organisation to be successful in the long run. This chapter presents an entirely different approach to knowledge management: it introduces Appreciative Inquiry as an approach to management based on an organisation’s strengths with regards to knowledge management, such as, for example, knowledge creation and knowledge sharing practices that are already working well. Applying the principles of Appreciative Inquiry and Appreciative Sharing of Knowledge, as defined by Cooperrider and Srivastva (1987), Cooperrider and Whitney (1999) and Thatchenkery and Chowdhry (2007), the aim is to utilise the strengths within the organisation, and learn from and further build on these strengths, in order to enhance the organisation’s knowledge management practices and ultimately its success overall. The first two sections of this chapter introduce Appreciative Inquiry and Appreciative Sharing of Knowledge as alternative approaches to knowledge management. They highlight key principles of these and provide examples as to how they can be applied to event organisations. The final section of the chapter more specifically discusses (positive) stories and storytelling within the Appreciative Sharing of Knowledge approach and focuses on how stories of success, achievement, and positive memories can be a useful tool within event organisations to create a shared understanding and knowledge of what the event is about, what it aims to achieve, and how to work together effectively and efficiently. It will be reemphasised that these tacit knowledge practices are invaluable within any organisation, and can provide a competitive advantage in the long term.

Knowledge Management Activities, Models and Frameworks

The knowledge-based theory of the firm is centred on two key principles: first, knowledge can be a source of competitive advantage, especially if it is difficult to replicate and copy, if it is organisation-specific, and directly related to the organisation’s products, services or processes. Second, the sharing of information and knowledge within organisations is believed to be more effective than within markets (Hislop et al., 2018). Furthermore, if knowledge is considered the most important asset for achieving competitive advantage in an organisation (where competencies, capabilities and skills are more important than other types of assets and resources), then the organisation can be defined as ‘knowledge intensive’. Or, as Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995: 7) famously argued, “the future belongs to people who use their heads instead of their hands.” Knowledge-intensive firms can be described as companies with work that is intellectual and where the workforce consists of well-qualified employees. They can also be different to other, non-knowledge-intensive firms, in terms of their structure (i.e., less hierarchical), the character of their workforce, products and services (e.g., non-standardised products, high quality services, such as memorable experiences), as well as the nature of the work processes themselves (i.e., complex, creative, requiring collaboration between different teams and departments) (Alvesson & Kaerreman, 2001; Hislop et al., 2018). Taking these characteristics into account, event organisations can to some extent be classified as ‘knowledge-intensive’ and it is therefore important to effectively manage knowledge management activities and processes within these organisations.

Introduction, Concepts and Definitions

During the late 1990s and early 2000s, the belief in a knowledge-based economy has grown; not just amongst academics, but also policy makers, consultants and managers. Nonaka and Takeuchi’s (1995) work The Knowledge Creating Company was among the first to recognise that organisations that manage their knowledge efficiently, have a competitive advantage over organisations that do not succeed in doing so. Based on this understanding, a number of knowledge management frameworks and models have emerged which highlight how to improve the identification, creation, transfer, and documentation of knowledge. These will be discussed further in Chapter 3. This introductory chapter starts with a definition of key concepts and terms, including data, information and knowledge; explicit and tacit knowledge; and the three levels of where knowledge resides (the individual, group, and organisational level). It also briefly explains how processes of managing knowledge at an organisational level can help organisations learn over time, create an organisational memory, and build on what has or has not worked in the past. The concept of knowledge management is thus linked to organisational learning and innovation (Argyris & Schoen, 1978; Gorelick et al., 2004; Senge, 2006). The final section of the chapter provides a range of knowledge management definitions and an overview of the ‘three generations’ of knowledge management.

Structural Elements of Knowledge Management

As outlined in the previous chapters, knowledge can be practised in many different ways and technology can only to some extent support these activities. There are other structural elements that organisations can put in place though, to support and enhance knowledge practices and knowledge management. This chapter starts with a brief overview of the relationship between human resource management and knowledge management. It has been argued that the two go hand-in-hand and that effective human resource management can positively contribute to creating both a structure and a culture for knowledge management. It will therefore be covered here in relation to organisational structure and then referred back to in Chapter 6, where organisational culture will be further explored. The literature on human resource management is vast and it should be noted that only HR practices that are particularly relevant to the events industry will be covered in depth in this chapter. Based on this introduction to HR and knowledge practices, the second part of the chapter will then explore different hierarchical and non-hierarchical structures that can enhance or inhibit knowledge management, such as top-down, bottom-up and middle-up-down knowledge management, as well as the creation of interdisciplinary teams and pods. While it is necessary to have these organisational structures in place, the structure of an organisation, however, is never fixed, but rather a dynamic constellation of relationships (Küpers, 2005). In terms of the relational and practice-based approach to knowledge management this is important to acknowledge, as it helps to understand the fluid and dynamic environment in which knowledge is practised. The chapter finishes with a discussion of specific knowledge management roles and responsibilities at different levels and for both internal and external stakeholders. These again are important to recognise in any organisation as they shape the way employees think about their roles in relation to knowledge management and therefore how they come to understand certain knowledge practices.

Relational and Practice Based Knowledge Management

As mentioned in Chapter 3, knowledge is by many seen as an entity or an object that can be possessed by people but can also exist completely independently of people. This objectivist perspective on knowledge, however, has over the years been critiqued a lot, and a different approach to knowledge management, or even a different understanding of knowledge itself has emerged: knowledge, or as some prefer to say – ‘knowing’ or ‘know-how’, is now regarded as a practice and it is therefore inseparable from human beings (Gherardi, 2000; Orlikowski, 2002; Hislop et al., 2018). Hislop et al. (2018) refer to this as the practice-based perspective on knowledge, whereby engaging in practices means that people do not just engage in cognitive processes, but in more holistic processes involving the whole body. It is based on the assumption that knowledge is not an object, but rather it is multi-faceted and complex, explicit and tacit at the same time, individual and distributed, situated and abstract, mental and physical, static and constantly developing and evolving (Blackler, 1995). Knowledge in itself therefore cannot be managed; rather, the management of knowledge can to some extent be supported and facilitated by collaboration and interpersonal communication.

Glossary

Appreciative Inquiry to Tacit knowledge

Practical Implications and Recommendations for Event Organisers

Throughout this book a number of practical implications and recommendations for event organisers have been mentioned and outlined. This chapter aims to bring them all together in relation to some of the challenges faced by event organisations specifically, as covered in Chapter 2. It is worth remembering though, that any knowledge management initiative in any kind of organisation is not just down to top management and their aims and objectives. Debowski (2006: 337) nicely summarised the four key knowledge management principles as follows: - Knowledge management is everyone’s business; - Knowledge practices are legitimate core business; - Communication is essential; and - High performance should be encouraged. While the recommendations presented throughout this chapter are largely aimed at event managers, they need to be incorporated with all employees in mind; permanent and seasonal staff members, volunteers, as well as contractors, suppliers, local businesses and other stakeholders. An event organisation can only learn as a whole over time by effectively bringing together knowledge and expertise from as many different sources as possible. Furthermore, effective knowledge management, and a more explicit understanding of it, will enhance professionalisation across the events industry and will make event professionals more employable in the future (Stadler et al., 2014). The book has also highlighted that there is still a need for further research into knowledge management in event organisations. In the final section of this chapter, suggestions for future research will hence be presented. This could be in the form of student research projects, dissertations (undergraduate or postgraduate), as well as consultancy work or other types of applied research.

Knowledge Management Challenges in Event Organisations

This chapter sets the scene for knowledge management in an events context. The events industry is a highly competitive industry, where many new events emerge, and unsuccessful ones disappear. Events management thus needs to be effective in order for the organisation to be successful, both in economic as well as in creative terms. The notion of success is thereby “(...) as much an inward-looking concept as an outward one” (Getz & Frisby, 1988: 23). Effective knowledge management can help event organisations stay innovative and competitive in the long term. This, however, comes with a few challenges. Allen et al. (2011) and Bowdin et al. (2012) provide an extensive overview of the managerial process of organising special events. An operational focus includes strategic considerations, marketing, financing, human resource management, logistics, legal issues, and risk management.