A Priori v Post Hoc Testing

2014 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vance W. Berger
Keyword(s):  
A Priori ◽  
Post Hoc

scholarly journals When Does HARKing Hurt? Identifying When Different Types of Undisclosed Post Hoc Hypothesizing Harm Scientific Progress

2017 ◽  
Vol 21 (4) ◽  
pp. 308-320 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Rubin
Keyword(s):  
Philosophy Of Science ◽  
Present Article ◽  
Literature Search ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Scientific Progress ◽  
Research Report ◽  
Research Results ◽  
Different Types ◽  
Replication Crisis ◽  
Post Hoc

Hypothesizing after the results are known, or HARKing, occurs when researchers check their research results and then add or remove hypotheses on the basis of those results without acknowledging this process in their research report ( Kerr, 1998 ). In the present article, I discuss 3 forms of HARKing: (a) using current results to construct post hoc hypotheses that are then reported as if they were a priori hypotheses; (b) retrieving hypotheses from a post hoc literature search and reporting them as a priori hypotheses; and (c) failing to report a priori hypotheses that are unsupported by the current results. These 3 types of HARKing are often characterized as being bad for science and a potential cause of the current replication crisis. In the present article, I use insights from the philosophy of science to present a more nuanced view. Specifically, I identify the conditions under which each of these 3 types of HARKing is most and least likely to be bad for science. I conclude with a brief discussion about the ethics of each type of HARKing.

Numerically Varied S-R Mapping Disorder

1967 ◽  
Vol 25 (2) ◽  
pp. 361-373 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert Weber ◽  
William Love ◽  
Mymon Goldstein
Keyword(s):  
Discrimination Learning ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Learning Rate ◽  
Task Structure ◽  
Mapping Problem ◽  
Quadratic Component ◽  
Subjective Awareness ◽  
Numerical Variation ◽  
Post Hoc ◽  
The Way

Qualitative support for the effects on learning of various degrees of S-R mapping disorder was cited to show that the way stimulus and response classes are connected or mapped together may have a strong effect on learning rate. Then to study quantitatively the S-R mapping problem a paradigm based on discrimination learning procedures was constructed. It made possible the numerical variation of S-R mapping on an order-disorder basis. The order-disorder dimension was related a priori to a linear variable for number of different correct choices and to a quadratic variable for conditional mapping uncertainty, U.(R). Mean errors were significantly related to only the quadratic component. Other results include: a closer relation between U.(R) and SDs than between U.(R) and means; unique patterns of errors within groups related to mapping structure; and a correspondence between post-experimental subjective awareness and both task structure and difficulty. Finally, among post hoc explanations of mapping effects one phrased in terms of mapping uncertainty and hypothesis storage, sampling, and generation gave the best account of obtained results.

Using Planned Comparisons in Management Research: A Case for the Bonferroni Procedure

1993 ◽  
Vol 19 (3) ◽  
pp. 707-724 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria B. Castaiieda ◽  
Joel R. Levin ◽  
Randall B. Dunham
Keyword(s):  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Multivariate Analyses ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Comparison Method ◽  
Multiple Comparison ◽  
Management Research ◽  
Bonferroni Procedure ◽  
Sequential Hypothesis ◽  
Sequential Hypothesis Testing ◽  
Post Hoc

This article describes the Bonferroni multiple-comparison procedure, and makes a case for researchers’ more frequent and appropriate use of it. The procedure is discussed as a test that facilitates investigation of precise and powerful a priori multiple comparisons. Characteristics of the Bonferroni procedure are described in relation to the more familiar Scheffe post hoc multiple-comparison method, and a step-by-step guide for comparing and choosing between the two is provided. The Bonferroni procedure is discussed in detail in the context of one-factor analysis-of-variance designs. Application of the technique is then considered in the context of factorial designs, analyses of covariance, univariate repeated-measures analyses, multivariate analyses of variance, and recent sequential hypothesis-testing extensions. To aid the presentation, an example from the field of management is included.

scholarly journals Total Energy and Macronutrient Intakes in Masters Athletes

2021 ◽  
Vol 5 (Supplement_2) ◽  
pp. 1296-1296
Author(s):  
Quentin Nichols ◽  
Rohit Ramadoss ◽  
Stella Volpe
Keyword(s):  
Total Energy ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Significance Level ◽  
Funding Sources ◽  
Masters Athletes ◽  
Different Types ◽  
Study Participants ◽  
Post Hoc

Abstract Objectives Athletes subscribe to different energy and macronutrient intakes based on the needs of the sport. The aim of our study was to evaluate total energy and macronutrient intakes between different types of Masters athletes. Methods Female and male Masters athletes participated in this cross-sectional study. Dietary consumption data were measured using Block's 2005 Food Frequency Questionnaire. A one-way analysis of variance was used to compare total energy, protein, carbohydrate, and fat (in grams [g]) intakes among the athletes. When significant differences were found, a Fisher's LSD post hoc test was performed to identify specific group differences. The significance level was set a priori at P < 0.05. Results A total of 330 athletes (182 women and 148 men) were included in the study. Participants were 36.55 ± 11.2 years of age. The athlete population consisted of general athletes (n = 81), runners (n = 116), triathletes (n = 53), rowers (n = 46), and CrossFit athletes (n = 34). Runners (1941.35 ± 697.25 kilocolaries [kcal]), triathletes (2031.65 ± 912.02 kcal), and rowers (2004.15 ± 978.42 kcal) all had significantly greater total energy intakes compared to CrossFit athletes (1538.80 ± 491.74 kcal) (P < 0.05). Runners (226.21 ± 89.67 g) and triathletes (235.43 ± 134.29 g) had significantly greater carbohydrate intakes compared to CrossFit athletes (162.93 ± 66.99 g) (P < 0.05). Rowers (83.31 ± 44.74 g) had a significantly greater protein intake compared to CrossFit athletes (64.77 ± 21.32 g) (P = 0.027). Rowers (87.35 ± 45.91 g) had a significantly greater fat intake compared to CrossFit athletes (68.86 ± 25.10 g) (P = 0.041). Conclusions Based on our data, runners, triathletes, and rowers all had greater total energy intake compared to CrossFit athletes. Rowers also consumed significantly more protein and fat than CrossFit athletes. Rowers may consume more protein and fat due to the combination of endurance and strength needed to meet the demands of the sport. Further research is needed to continue evaluating total energy and macronutrient intakes between different types of Masters athletes. Funding Sources This project was unfunded.

scholarly journals Incorporating Prior Knowledge into Regularized Regression

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chubing Zeng ◽  
Duncan Campbell Thomas ◽  
Juan Pablo Lewinger
Keyword(s):  
Gene Expression ◽  
Empirical Bayes ◽  
Marginal Likelihood ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Penalized Regression ◽  
Prediction Performance ◽  
Parameters Estimation ◽  
Bayes Estimation ◽  
Lasso Regression ◽  
Post Hoc

AbstractMotivationAssociated with genomic features like gene expression, methylation, and genotypes, used in statistical modeling of health outcomes, there is a rich set of meta-features like functional annotations, pathway information, and knowledge from previous studies, that can be used post-hoc to facilitate the interpretation of a model. However, using this meta-feature information a-priori rather than post-hoc can yield improved prediction performance as well as enhanced model interpretation.ResultsWe propose a new penalized regression approach that allows a-priori integration of external meta-features. The method extends LASSO regression by incorporating individualized penalty parameters for each regression coefficient. The penalty parameters are in turn modeled as a log-linear function of the meta-features and are estimated from the data using an approximate empirical Bayes approach. Optimization of the marginal likelihood on which the empirical Bayes estimation is based is performed using a fast and stable majorization-minimization procedure. Through simulations, we show that the proposed regression with individualized penalties can outperform the standard LASSO in terms of both parameters estimation and prediction performance when the external data is informative. We further demonstrate our approach with applications to gene expression studies of bone density and breast cancer.Availability and implementationThe methods have been implemented in the R package xtune freely available for download from CRAN.

scholarly journals When Does HARKing Hurt? Identifying When Different Types of Undisclosed Post Hoc Hypothesizing Harm Scientific Progress

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Rubin
Keyword(s):  
Philosophy Of Science ◽  
Present Article ◽  
Literature Search ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Scientific Progress ◽  
Research Report ◽  
Research Results ◽  
Different Types ◽  
Replication Crisis ◽  
Post Hoc

Hypothesizing after the results are known, or HARKing, occurs when researchers check their research results and then add or remove hypotheses on the basis of those results without acknowledging this process in their research report (Kerr, 1998). In the present article, I discuss three forms of HARKing: (1) using current results to construct post hoc hypotheses that are then reported as if they were a priori hypotheses; (2) retrieving hypotheses from a post hoc literature search and reporting them as a priori hypotheses; and (3) failing to report a priori hypotheses that are unsupported by the current results. These three types of HARKing are often characterized as being bad for science and a potential cause of the current replication crisis. In the present article, I use insights from the philosophy of science to present a more nuanced view. Specifically, I identify the conditions under which each of these three types of HARKing is most and least likely to be bad for science. I conclude with a brief discussion about the ethics of each type of HARKing.

scholarly journals Segmentation of Czech consumers as for their relationship to organic foods

2013 ◽  
Vol 59 (No. 8) ◽  
pp. 348-360
Author(s):  
J. Koudelka
Keyword(s):  
Market Segmentation ◽  
Consumer Behaviour ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Marketing Communication ◽  
Food Markets ◽  
Conventional Agriculture ◽  
Consumer Markets ◽  
Segmentation Approach ◽  
Post Hoc ◽  
Significant Attention

Products of organic agriculture have gained a significant attention among consumers. It creates a visible impact also on the products of conventional agriculture. This leads to the necessity to apply target marketing at the food resp. organic food markets. The objective of this article is to explore the possible approaches to the process of market segmentation at these consumer markets. The data of the Market & Media & Lifestyle were used. Variables of food consumer behaviour and lifestyle were especially selected. Three lines of market segmentation were inferred from the basic conceptual approaches: a priori segmentation, post hoc segmentation and forward segmentation. The data were analysed in several steps using multidimensional analyses. The results indicate a different marketing potential of the investigated approaches. A priori segmentation seems to be more proper for the purpose of the sales management. A broadly based post hoc segmentation should be useful when the concept of marketing communication is to be created. The elaborated forward segmentation approach will take place when the marketing strategy is evaluated.  

Building a Psychometric Instrument and Data Collection Checklist for Healthy Aging Initiatives

2014 ◽  
pp. 389-408
Author(s):  
Marianne Robin Russo ◽  
Valerie C. Bryan
Keyword(s):  
Data Collection ◽  
Healthy Aging ◽  
Human Life ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Archival Data ◽  
Validity And Reliability ◽  
Psychometric Instrument ◽  
Instrument Construction ◽  
Health Related ◽  
Post Hoc

Instrument design should consider the measurement of constructs that are directly linked to how well the data is generated and subsequently measured and assessed. We need sufficient instruments and archival data that will solve problems for the improvement of human life, inclusive of health-related issues. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the methodological approaches the psychometrician reviewed in order to determine if a need existed to create an adequate, effective, and robust instrument, or if the current primary and/or archival data would be adequate for the study related to healthy aging. The intent of the researchers is to examine the relationship between instrumentation and data and to develop a checklist for instrumentation and data collection. A comprehensive literature review and a final evaluation instrument is constructed that may assist the researcher in the validity and reliability of instrumentation a priori and post-hoc instrument construction in the future.

A-priori and post-hoc segmentation in the design of healthy eating campaigns

2010 ◽  
Vol 16 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 21-45 ◽  
Author(s):  
Laura Kazbare ◽  
Hans C.M. van Trijp ◽  
Jacob Kjær Eskildsen
Keyword(s):  
Healthy Eating ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Post Hoc
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