IMMIGRATION, RETURN, AND THE POLITICS OF CITIZENSHIP: RUSSIAN MUSLIMS IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1860–1914

2007 ◽  
Vol 39 (1) ◽  
pp. 15-32 ◽  
Author(s):  
James H. Meyer
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
Significant Proportion ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
The Balkans ◽  
Late Imperial ◽  
Ottoman History ◽  
Muslim Immigrants ◽  
Population Shift ◽  
The 19Th Century

The immigration of Muslims into the Ottoman Empire, especially from Russia and the Balkans, is a feature of late imperial Ottoman history whose legacy remains strong to this day. Millions of individuals in present-day Turkey trace their roots back to the Balkans or Russia, and interest in these regions remains high in Turkey. Estimates of Muslim immigrants to the Ottoman Empire vary, although most sources place the total number of Muslims leaving Russia for the Ottoman Empire in the latter half of the 19th century and early 20th century at well over one million. As Russian Muslims in 1897 were considered to number nearly 20 million while Ottoman Muslims counted in the same year numbered 14.1 million, this population shift involved a significant proportion of the Muslim populations of both empires.

AUSTRIAN AND HUNGARIAN RESEARCHERS OF THE 19TH – 20TH CENTURIES. THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY AND ARCHIVES OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

2021 ◽  
pp. 105-120
Author(s):  
Akhmed K. Chapanov ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
Arab Countries ◽  
Political Life ◽  
The Balkans ◽  
Ottoman History ◽  
Archival Documents ◽  
Turkish People ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article analyzes the role of Austrian and Hungarian researchers of the 19th – 20th centuries in studying the history of the Ottoman Empire. It is noted that the earliest publications of the Ottoman documents were made in the first half of the 19th century. The orientalists J. von Hammer-Purgstall, A. Geway and A. Vambery made a significant contribution to the search for and use of archival documents during this period. In the first half of the 20th century, the Turkish scientists, with the active assistance of several European Orientalists, such as I. Karachon, P. Wittek and L.Fekete, began to reveal the contents of some Ottoman archives and systematize the documents. As a result of the activities of these researchers, a new stage was set in the study of the Ottoman history, diplomacy, and paleography, as well as in the development of archives administration in Turkey. The author concludes that the publication of the Ottoman documents, which contain valuable information about the socio-economic and political life of all the peoples of the Empire, contributed to the further scientific interest and analysis of the Ottoman documents. The studies conducted by the AustroHungarian scientists revealed that the archives of Turkey contain a large number of valuable materials that are important for studies in the history of the Turkish people and the peoples of the Arab countries, the Balkans, Iran, the Caucasus and all the countries that were under the Ottoman rule.

scholarly journals Tracing Pan-Slavism in Official Documents of the Military Department of the Russian Empire in the Early 20th Century

2020 ◽  
pp. 25-36
Author(s):  
П.П. Рыхтик
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Great Influence ◽  
Political Influence ◽  
Russian Empire ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
The Balkans ◽  
Russian Military ◽  
The Russian Empire ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Military

Рассматривается проблема влияния идеологической концепции панславизма на систему отношений великих держав и малых акторов в Балканском регионе начала ХХ века. Дается взгляд на теорию панславизма как явления мировой общественно-политической мысли, зародившегося в XIX веке и представляющего собой многосоставное и неопределенное понятие, наполнявшееся различным смыслом отдельными теоретиками. Особое внимание уделяется чертам русского панславизма как одного из ответвлений данного течения, наиболее актуального в рамках общественно-политического дискурса поздней Российской империи. Указывается на влияние на русский панславистский дискурс следующих основных факторов: актуальных задач балканской политики России, образов «братьев-славян», формировавшихся в русском общественно-политическом сознании в XIX — начале ХХ века, и связанной с данным образом метафоры «славянской взаимности»; развитие и усиление популярности в России к рубежу XIX–XX веков идей славянофилов. Приводится анализ постепенного проникновения элементов панславистского дискурса из комплекса идей поздних славянофилов, в частности на основе работ и речей В. И. Ламанского, в тексты официального характера (планы, донесения, аналитические записки) Генерального штаба (Главного штаба) Российской империи в начале ХХ века, посвященные вопросам русского военного и политического влияния в системе международных отношений на Балканах начала ХХ века. Делается вывод об особенностях данного идеологического проникновения панславистской концепции в ее взаимодействии с образом «малых» южнославянских народов в сознание подданных Российской империи, с мифом о «братьях-славянах», об актуальной политической обстановке, в которой находилась Россия. The article traces the influence of the ideology of Pan-Slavism on the interaction of major and minor countries in the Balkans in the early 20th century. Pan-Slavism is treated as a social and political philosophy which originated in the 19th century to become a versatile and heterogeneous concept, which is differently interpreted by different theoreticians. The article focuses on Russian Pan-Slavism as a variety of this philosophy typical of social and political discourse of the late Russian Empire. The article highlights the great influence exerted upon Russian Pan-Slavism by the following factors: Russian objectives in the Balkans, the idea of Slavic fraternity, the popularity of Slavophilism in Russia at the turn of the 19th — 20th centuries. The article analyzes the process of gradual penetration of Pan-Slavic ideas shared by late Slavophiles, V. I. Lamansky in particular, into official texts (plans, reports, analytical notes) issued by the General Headquarters of the Russian Empire in the early 20th century and devoted to the discussion of Russian military and political influence on the system of international relations in the Balkans in the early 20th century. The author focuses on the peculiarities of the Pan-Slavic penetration and the image of Southern Slavs in the Russian Empire. The author also focuses on the idea of Slavic fraternity and the political situation in Russia.

scholarly journals KEY CONCEPTS OF SERBIAN RULERS ON THE ISSUE OF THE ALLIANCE OF THE BALKAN STATES AND PEOPLES FROM 1860 TO 1912

2021 ◽  
pp. 159-171
Author(s):  
DRAGAN ĐUKANOVIĆ
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Political Factors ◽  
The Balkans ◽  
Key Concepts ◽  
The Creation ◽  
Balkan States ◽  
The 19Th Century

Since the middle of the 19th century, ideas related to the mutual rapprochement of the Balkan states and the creation of their broader associations have appeared within the ruling circles in Serbia. In that sense, the author analyzes the concepts of the Balkan unions of the rulers from the Serbian dynasty Obrenović (Prince Mihailo, King Milan and King Aleksandar), as well as King Petar I Karađorđević starting from 1860 to 1912. These concepts of the Balkan alliance, whether they were autochthonous or otherwise the result of the influence of the leading political factors of the then European order, did not have a significant foothold in the then public of Serbia. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of a transient inclusive Balkan alliance aiming to liberate certain parts of the Balkans from the Ottoman Empire prevailed, and after its success in 1912, it was modified by the abandonment of Bulgaria. Also, despite the undoubtedly unfavorable international influences and the aspiration of the Balkan states to round up their ethnic territories, there was no genuine possibility to realize the concept of Balkan interstate solidarity during the second half of the 19th century.

Сирия (аш-Шам) в системе османских владений (XVI – начало XX в.)

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
D.R. Zhantiev
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Social Mechanisms ◽  
Checks And Balances ◽  
Local Elites ◽  
The Balkans ◽  
The Face ◽  
High Level ◽  
The 19Th Century

Аннотация В статье рассматривается роль и место Сирии (включая Ливан и Палестину) в системе османских владений на протяжении нескольких веков от османского завоевания до периода правления султана Абдул-Хамида II. В течение четырех столетий османского владычества территория исторической Сирии (Билад аш-Шам) была одним из важнейших компонентов османской системы и играла роль связующего звена между Анатолией, Египтом, Ираком и Хиджазом. Необходимость ежегодной организации хаджа с символами султанской власти и покровительства над святынями Мекки и Медины определяла особую стратегическую важность сирийских провинций Османской империи. Несмотря на ряд серьезных угроз во время общего кризиса османской государственности (конец XVI начало XIX вв.), имперскому центру удалось сохранить контроль над Сирией путем создания сдержек и противовесов между местными элитами. В XIX в. и особенно в период правления Абдул- Хамида II (18761909 гг.), сохранение Сирии под османским контролем стало вопросом существования Османской империи, которая перед лицом растущего европейского давления и интервенции потеряла большую часть своих владений на Балканах и в Северной Африке. Задача укрепления связей между имперским центром и периферией в сирийских вилайетах в последней четверти XIX в. была в целом успешно решена. К началу XX в. Сирия была одним из наиболее политически спокойных и прочно связанных со Стамбулом регионов Османской империи. Этому в значительной степени способствовали довольно высокий уровень общественной безопасности, развитие внешней торговли, рост образования и постепенная интеграция местных элит (как мусульман, так и христиан) в османские государственные и социальные механизмы. Положение Сирии в системе османских владений показало, что процесс ослабления и территориальной дезинтеграции Османской империи в эпоху реформ не был линейным и наряду с потерей владений и влияния на Балканах, в азиатской части империи в течение XIX и начала XX вв. происходил параллельный процесс имперской консолидации.Abstract The article examines the role and place of Greater Syria (including Lebanon and Palestine) in the system of Ottoman possessions over several centuries from the Ottoman conquest to the period of the reign of Abdul Hamid II. For four centuries of Ottoman domination, the territory of historical Syria (Bilad al-Sham) was one of the most important components in the Ottoman system and played the role of a link between Anatolia, Egypt, Iraq and Hijaz. The need to ensure the Hajj with symbols of Sultan power and patronage over the shrines of Mecca and Medina each year determined the special strategic importance of the Syrian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Despite a number of serious threats during the general crisis of the Ottoman state system (late 16th early 19th centuries), the imperial center managed to maintain control over Syria by creating checks and balances between local elites. In the 19th century. And especially during the reign of Abdul Hamid II (18761909), keeping Syria under Ottoman control became a matter of existence for the Ottoman Empire, which, in the face of increasing European pressure and intervention, lost most of its possessions in the Balkans and North Africa. The task of strengthening ties between the imperial center and the periphery in Syrian vilayets in the last quarter of the 19th century was generally successfully resolved. By the beginning of the 20th century, Syria was one of the most politically calm and firmly connected with Istanbul regions of the Ottoman Empire. This was greatly facilitated by a fairly high level of public safety, the development of foreign trade, the growth of education and the gradual integration of local elites (both Muslims and Christians) into Ottoman state and social mechanisms. Syrias position in the system of Ottoman possessions clearly showed that the process of weakening and territorial disintegration of the Ottoman Empire during the era of reform was not linear, and along with the loss of possessions and influence in the Balkans, in the Asian part of the empire during the 19th and early 20th centuries there was a parallel process of imperial consolidation.

The Ismaili Tradition in Iran: 13th Century to the Present

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Beben
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
13Th Century ◽  
Complete Understanding ◽  
Northern Iran ◽  
Minority Community ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
To Receive

The Ismailis are a minority community of Shiʿi Muslims that first emerged in the 8th century. Iran has hosted one of the largest Ismaili communities since the earliest years of the movement and from 1095 to 1841 it served as the home of the Nizārī Ismaili imams. In 1256 the Ismaili headquarters at the fortress of Alamūt in northern Iran was captured by the Mongols and the Imam Rukn al-Dīn Khūrshāh was arrested and executed, opening a perilous new chapter in the history of the Ismailis in Iran. Generations of observers believed that the Ismailis had perished entirely in the course of the Mongol conquests. Beginning in the 19th century, research on the Ismailis began to slowly reveal the myriad ways in which they survived and even flourished in Iran and elsewhere into the post-Mongol era. However, scholarship on the Iranian Ismailis down to the early 20th century remained almost entirely dependent on non-Ismaili sources that were generally quite hostile toward their subject. The discovery of many previously unknown Ismaili texts beginning in the early 20th century offered prospects for a richer and more complete understanding of the tradition’s historical development. Yet despite this, the Ismaili tradition in the post-Mongol era continues to receive only a fraction of the scholarly attention given to earlier periods, and a number of sources produced by Ismaili communities in this period remain unexplored, offering valuable opportunities for future research.

scholarly journals Confessional conversions on the territory of Belarus in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century: overview of historiography

2021 ◽  
pp. 82-89
Author(s):  
Marharyta M. Karol
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
21St Century ◽  
State Policy ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
General State ◽  
Present Stage ◽  
Religious Issues ◽  
Points Of View ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article examines the stages of the formation of historiography devoted to the problems of confessional conversions in the second half of the 19th century on the territory of the Belarusian provinces. The historiographic trends that formed from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century were identified and analysed. The authour studies the peculiarities of Belarusian and foreign historiography at the present stage, when a large number of works on religious issues has appeared, including confessional conversions. It is argued that in Soviet times, the issue of transitions from Catholicism to Orthodoxy was practically not touched upon. In their approaches and assessments, some researchers continue the traditions of pre-revolutionary historiography, but the majority of modern scientists strive to give an objective picture of religious processes on the Belarusian lands, to show them in the context of general state policy. The relevance of the article is due to the coverage of various points of view on the problem of confessional conversions. It is noted that pre-revolutionary researchers, first of all, sought to prove the voluntariness of conversions to Orthodoxy, but during this period, works were also created in which this thesis was questioned.

scholarly journals Orthography of books and their authors at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-15
Author(s):  
Jurgita Venckienė
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
Standard Language ◽  
The Press ◽  
Prayer Books ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Research Period

During development of the Standard Lithuanian language at the end of the 19th century, the dialectal basis was chosen first, and the orthography varied yet for another twenty years. This article analyses the dual orthography – of books and personal orthography of their authors. The study is designed to find out whether the books published during that period reflect the orthographic model chosen by their authors; what factors, in addition to the author’s choice, may have influenced the orthography of the books.The influence of printers on the orthography of books during that period was smaller than before, as many authors did the proofreading themselves. Thus, printers were able to change the orthography in cases where books were printed without the author’s knowledge or consent, such as prayer books. If the author chose unusual, rare, or even self-invented characters, a limited inventory of prints could be a serious obstacle to keep their orthography in the book. As the case of Jonas Basanavičius shows, even when the author offered to finance the acquisition of the necessary prints, this was not necessarily done.At the end of the 19th century, books were published as supplements to periodicals. The editors of newspapers Ūkininkas and Tėvynės sargas adapted the orthography of such books to their periodicals. Under the terms of the press ban, it was often important for authors just to print a book, and the spelling model was chosen by the publisher. However, authors such as Basanavičius, who considered themselves the creators of the standard language, took care to present their chosen or created model of orthography in their books as well.As the cases of Liudvika Didžiulienė, Dominykas Tumėnas and Basanavičius show, two orthographic standards emerged during the research period: correspondence was written one way and books were printed another. Hence, it is not always possible to judge the orthographic model chosen by the authors in books published at the end of the 19th century and the early 20th century. 

scholarly journals Panorámica historiográfica de los estudios sobre el Mitra védico, avéstico y romano

2018 ◽  
Vol 29 ◽  
pp. 297
Author(s):  
Israel Campos Méndez
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
21St Century ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
Global Understanding ◽  
Scientific Nature ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Accidental Discovery

Resumen: El interés que ha suscitado la figura del dios Mitra ha dejado como reflejo estudios que se remontan al periodo romano. Sin embargo, a partir del Renaci­miento el descubrimiento casual de piezas escul­tóricas de asunto mitraico, atrajo el interés de in­vestigadores que indagaron en sus escritos sobre la identidad de la divinidad que aparecía matando un toro. Durante los siglos XVI al XVIII, la temática solar y la identificación del Mitraísmo se convirtió en el contenido de estos estudios. A partir del s. XIX, empieza a tomar forma una investigación de carácter más científico sobre la cuestión mitraica, que encontrará su nacimiento formal con los tra­bajos de F. Cumont a principios del s. XX. Este si­glo pasado ha sido el que ha visto florecer el mayor y más profundo volumen de estudios desentrañan­do los misterios vinculados al dios Mitra, tanto en su vertiente de divinidad de los panteones védicos y avésticos, como en el ámbito del culto mistérico desarrollado en el marco del Imperio Romano. En los comienzos del siglo XXI, todavía permanecen abiertas algunas hipótesis iniciales, pero sí se cons­tata una vitalidad en los estudios para la compren­sión global del Mitraísmo.Palabras clave: Mitra, Mitraísmo, Avesta, Veda, Cumont.Abstract: One mark of the interest attached to the god Mithra is the line of studies dating back to the Ro­man period. It was, however, during the Renais­sance that the accidental discovery of sculptural pieces of a Mithraic subject attracted the interest of researchers, who sought to identify the bull-ki­lling divinity. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, this field of research re-oriented itself to the solar theme and the identification of Mithraism. In the 19th century, it took on a scientific nature, and the landmark the studies of F. Cumont saw the light of day in early 20th century. As the century progres­sed ambitious in-depth studies flourished, unra­velling the mysteries linked to the cult of the god Mithra, both in terms of the divinity of the Vedic and Avestan pantheons and of the sphere of the mystery cult established in the context of the Ro­man Empire. At the beginning of the 21st century, some initial hypotheses remain open, but the vi­tality of studies pursuing a global understanding of Mithraism remains unchallenged.Key words: Mithra, Mithraism, Avesta, Veda, Cumont.

Giftedness from the perspective of research on genius: Some precautionary implications

2021 ◽  
pp. 026142942110463
Author(s):  
Dean Keith Simonton
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Research Literature ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
Specific Domain ◽  
Domain Specific ◽  
Empirical Relations ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Iq Tests

The terms giftedness and genius entered the research literature in the 19th century. Although not synonymous, both terms were defined according to potential or actual achievement in a specific domain. However, in the early 20th century, both terms became defined according to performance on domain-generic IQ tests. Given the empirical relations between achievement and intelligence, this transfer of meaning is unjustified. Both giftedness and genius must be defined with respect to potential or actual domain-specific achievements.

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